Atypical Development Notes

Atypical Development

Typical vs. Atypical Development

• Typical development: Imagine children following a well-marked path, reaching milestones like walking and talking around similar ages. We assess their skills in:

  • Gross-motor: Large movements such as running.

  • Fine-motor: Precise movements like drawing.

  • Cognitive: Thinking and problem-solving abilities.

  • Communication: Speaking and understanding language.

  • Personal/Self-help: Skills for self-care.

• Atypical development: This occurs when a child's development deviates significantly from the typical path. Experts, like those at the American Psychological Association (APA), consider it potentially harmful.

Factors Contributing to Atypical Development

• Genetic Factors: Sometimes, genes play a role.

  • Mutations or Deletions: These are like typos in the body's instruction manual. For instance, Down Syndrome results from an extra copy of chromosome 21, altering brain and body development.

• Cultural and Ethnic Norms: What's considered "typical" varies by culture. Expectations for a child's independence differ across cultures.

• Gender Norms: Societal expectations about how boys and girls should behave can affect development. For example, discouraging boys from expressing emotions might impact their emotional development.

• Situational Norms: Expected behavior changes based on the setting, like behaving differently on a playground versus in a library.

• Role of Others: Often, a parent, teacher, or doctor notices a difference, initiating the identification of atypical development.

• Changing views of atypicality: Our understanding of what's "atypical" evolves as we learn more about development, influencing diagnoses and treatments.

Theoretical Perspectives

• Freud and Psychoanalytic Theory: Freud believed early childhood experiences, especially unconscious conflicts, shape us.

  • Five fixed stages: Freud proposed five stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital) with distinct challenges. How we resolve these affects our personality.

• Behaviorism and Social Learning Theory: These focus on learning from the environment through rewards, punishments, and observation.

  • Humans learn by observing others: Learning to dance by watching a video exemplifies social learning.

Developmental Disorders

• Definitions:

  • Developmental Delay: Slower development in one or more areas.

  • Developmental Disorder: Significant gaps in development with progress occurring in an atypical order.

  • Learning Disability: Difficulty with specific skills like reading or math despite normal intelligence. It's about information processing.

Specific Learning Difficulties

• Types:

  • Dyslexia: Trouble with reading, connecting sounds to letters.

  • Dysgraphia: Trouble with writing, including spelling.

  • Dyscalculia: Trouble with math, like remembering math facts (4 \times 5 = 20).

  • Dyspraxia: Trouble with motor skills, like coordination.

• Aetiology of Specific Learning Difficulties:

  • Genetic Influences:

  • Twin Studies: Comparing identical (MZ) and fraternal (DZ) twins shows that if one MZ twin has a learning difficulty, the other is very likely to have it too, indicating genetics play a significant role. For example, Olson et al. (2014) in Developmental Science found a heritability estimate of around 60-70% for reading difficulties, meaning that a large proportion of reading ability variation can be attributed to genetic factors.

  • Psychosocial Influences:

  • Parental Talk: More parental talk increases a child's vocabulary. Early language exposure is crucial. Hart & Risley's (1995) study, Meaningful Differences in the Everyday Experience of Young American Children, showed children from higher socioeconomic backgrounds heard significantly more words impacting vocabulary development.

• Intervention:

  • Phonological Training: Training focusing on language sounds can improve reading skills in children with dyslexia. A meta-analysis by Ehri et al. (2001) in the Review of Educational Research showed that phonological awareness training has a significant positive impact on reading achievement.

Autism

• Primary Features:

  • Impaired social interaction: Difficulty understanding social cues and interacting with others.

  • Disturbed communication: Challenges with language, both verbal and nonverbal.

  • Restrictive, repetitive behaviors/interests: Repetitive movements or fixations on certain objects or activities.

• Secondary Features:

  • Problems in adaptive behavior: Difficulty with everyday skills.

  • Poor executive functions: Challenges with planning and organization.

  • Poor social cognition: Difficulty understanding others' perspectives (Theory of Mind).

Aetiology of Autism

• Genetic Influence: If one identical twin has autism, there's about a 60% chance the other twin will too. This highlights the strong genetic component. A study by Bailey et al. (1995) in Psychological Medicine was one of the first to demonstrate the high heritability of autism through twin studies.

• Prenatal and Pregnancy Risk:

  • Advanced parental age and maternal factors: Older parents and certain conditions during pregnancy may increase the risk.

Interventions for Autism

• Behavioral Interventions:

  • Encourage adaptive behaviors, discourage undesirable ones, improve motivation, Comprehensive treatment.

  • Example: Pivotal Response Treatment.

  • Young Autism Project stages involve directions, foundational skills, communication peer interaction and school adjustment.

• Educational Interventions:

  • Individual assessment, parent training, family support and collaboration with other agencies.

  • Social Stories can help children understand and respond to situations.

• Pharmacological Interventions:

  • Manage problem behaviors with Risperidone, watch for side effects.

Genetic Disorders Associated with Learning Disability

• Down Syndrome

• Fragile-X Syndrome

• Williams Syndrome

Down Syndrome

• Cause: Extra chromosome 21.

• Features: Distinct facial features, short stature.

• Cognitive/Behavioral Profile:

  • Slow intellectual growth, deficits in short-term memory, delayed language, mild behavior problems, increased dementia risk.

• Executive Function: Working memory and shifting are most affected, while inhibitory control is least affected.

Fragile-X Syndrome

• Cause: Mutation in the FMR1 gene.

• Features: Long face, large ears, double-jointed thumbs.

Williams Syndrome

• Cause: Small deletions on chromosome 7.

• Features: Distinct facial features, short stature.

University Level Essay Questions and How to Approach Them (Using Studies):

1. Discuss the interplay of genetic and environmental factors in the etiology of specific learning difficulties. Critically evaluate the evidence from twin studies and research on psychosocial influences.

   • How to Answer: Begin by defining specific learning difficulties (SLDs) like dyslexia, dysgraphia, and dyscalculia. Then, delve into the genetic component, citing twin studies such as Olson et al. (2014) to illustrate the heritability of reading difficulties. Explain how these studies compare concordance rates between MZ and DZ twins to estimate genetic influence. Next, discuss psychosocial factors, using Hart & Risley's (1995) work to show how parental language input affects vocabulary development. Critically evaluate by acknowledging the limitations of twin studies (e.g., equal environments assumption) and the complexities of gene-environment interactions. Conclude by arguing that SLDs result from a complex interplay of both genetic predispositions and environmental factors.

2. Evaluate the effectiveness of different intervention approaches for autism spectrum disorder (ASD), considering both behavioral and pharmacological interventions.

   • How to Answer: Start by outlining the core characteristics of ASD, including deficits in social communication and repetitive behaviors. Then, discuss behavioral interventions like Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT) and the Early Start Denver Model (ESDM), explaining their focus on enhancing motivation, communication, and social skills. Transition to pharmacological interventions, noting that medications like Risperidone are used to manage associated symptoms such as irritability and aggression. However, emphasize that pharmacological interventions should be used cautiously and in conjunction with behavioral therapies, citing research on their potential side effects. Conclude by arguing for a multi-faceted approach that combines behavioral, educational, and pharmacological strategies tailored to the individual's needs.

3. Critically analyze the concept of "atypical development," considering the influence of cultural norms, situational contexts, and changing diagnostic criteria.

   • How to Answer: Begin by defining atypical development