WA 2.2

Week 1 - Bronze Age Mediterannean

mediterranean means in the middle of the land, it is 2.5m km² so is the largest inland sea. salt water body w one outlet to the atlantic has been depeneded on and exploited for its waterways and resources

the mediterranean has a diverse landscape, with fertile fields, hills, arid conditions and fragmented topographies. characterized by mild wet winters and hot dry summers. leads to unpredictability of life

the mediterranean triad refers to olives and olive oil which the required rainfall and temperature needed to grow is one example of an indices used to define the mediterranean

the first copper was worked in turkey and silver/gold in bulgaria

nuraghi are stone-built fortresses, found in Sardinia in the 2-1m bc, equivalents are torri in Corsica and tayalots on the Balearic Islands

the early minoan (prepalatial) period on crete was from 3500-2000bc. shows emerging social complexity, has circular tombs (tholos) which were used the whole period and were amss graves over many centuries (small scale pops). grave goods included arsenical copper and seal stones (showing personal identity and ownership as well as access to trade).

Mocholos cemetery (crete) highlights wealth disparity with graves/family burial plots but other sites such as Myrtos and Vasilki show less information about this disparity.

around the mid 3m bc crete came into contact with egypt and the near east, could have been direct or through Levantine connections. This is seen in objects such as silver seals, hippo ivory, and stone egyptian bowls. later there is an increase in these objects, including scarabs, stone vessels, faience, ivory, lapis lazuli and other semi-precious stones from egypt or the near east. this allowed the emerging createan elites to establish their power.

humans have been in the mediterranean for at least 20,000 years but did not have social statification until a few thousand years ago. triggers for its development would have plant/animal domestication (12ka) and its westward spread (10.5-7ka). sub-optimal conditions and lack of connection with other social groups makes archaeologists question how stratification was adopted. state policies began to form on crete by 2000bc.

the Cycladic isles have white marble used throughout the EBA for statues and grave goods. Has 650 burials at Kastri which also has many small buildings and fortifications. has longboats carved on pottery frying pans. may have had prominence in the early 2m bc for trade and raiding in the islands. shows significance of maritime communications in the EBA.

early cycladic marble figures were made in the EBA (late 4-3m bc). some are less than 10cm and some are life sized. there are nude females, male hunter-warriors, flute players and harpists and some grouped figures. some have traces of painted decoration but they are now white. thousands of thes exist. show signs of transport for their deposition after their use-life was over. many fakes were made after ww2 and it is impossible to scientifically distinugish them from the original sculptures from ancient cycladic.

interregional contacts began to transform in the mid 3m bc. signs of independent cultures included different types of cycladic statues found in troy vs other areas. an example of a common type found in both is a sauce boat. many small hamlets are found during this time period. this includes “corridor house”, a 2 storey rectangular building which had provision for storage and clay seals for the mobilization or redistribution of commodities.

Sir Auther Evans discovered Minoan palace but came up with many modernized interpretations of what he found within the context of his Edwardian culture. Although his depiction has been popularised it is likely inaccurate to how the palace actually was.

The Minoan first palace period was from 2000-1700bc. this had the rise of complexes on Knossos and Mallia in the north and Phaistos on the s coast. these were remolded during the second palace period from 1700-1490bc due to a series of earthquakes. this also led to the addition of new palaces, such as Kato Zakros on the east coast and others in northern or central areas.

features of minoan palaces include

• being monumental w/o defensive walls

• large open air central courts + sometimes secondary western courts and other spaces for residents, rituals or entertainment

• had frescoed walls with some painted elements

• had magazines with pithoi (storage jars)

• subterraniean pits for storage/collection or redistribution of goods

• had different types of stamps or sealings and had different scripts for administrative technologies (included hieroglyphic and Linear A)

• overall, multifunctional spaces

evans assumed that these palaces were for elite persons (kings) but recently it has been suggested that authority and control during this period was not centralized and instead had factional competition from residing groups of different elites. social and political formations on crete can therefor be said to lack homogenity and were held together by similar ideologies, cosmetologies, and ritual than political authority. this may be why religious imagery (including double axes, nude women w snakes, bulls and horns of consecration) show up so often in different contexes here.

its difficult to define the actual cult beliefs of people here but it can be noted as a major factor of holding the community together and that palace authorities wanted control over this religious narrative. focus on religion can be seen in the alignment of sacred features with the environment. such as a Phaistos court aligns with Mount Ida which has Kamares Cave used for ritual purposes from the 1st palace period. This Kamares cave also hs Kamares ware, a palatial pottery type

peak sanctuaries are shrines located in high places, disconnected from domestic settlement. found in most parts of Crete they were established during the 1st palace period. some, such as Iuktas, were embellished following annexation to state control. A rhyton (ceremonial vessel) which was found at Kato Zakros apalace provides representation of a peak sanctuary. Other religious places included cult vaves and shrine rooms.

although there is a lot of focus on the crete palaces, there were also other types of settlements. this included towns (such as Gournia) and in the 2nd palace period there were villa complexes in central crete (Tylissos or Vathypetro).

Sailing abilities allowed for the spread of cretian knowledge and trade. Mubians had influence far outside of crete with representation of planks shown on sealstones in the 1st palace period. the first shipwreck, found in 2003, was dated from 1800-1700/1875 bc off the cretan island of Pseira (late stages of the 1st palace period).

later, people spoke of the thalassocracy or rule of the sea of King Minos. but economic and cultural networks were more assured than formal political domination. minoan exports and copes appear in the cyclaid islands which further highlight this trade and sharing of culture.

it is believed in classic antiquity that Ilion was the ancient site of troy and the mound of Hissarlik (nw turkey) has been used to textually locate where troy was. had spectacular meterial culture and wealth with much gold treasure and grave goods which was used to support Homer's tales as being partially true. troy is made from 9 successive settlements from 3000bc-500ce. it began rapidly developing in 2500bc and had immense wealth, creating Troy II. Troy VI was a forted citadel wgucg was destroyed in 1250.

at the end of the second palace period all but one palace was destroyed as well as villas. Knossos survived but had new administration which employed new material culture and had a Linear B script replacing Linear A. Linear A had been used for administrative purposes but this Linear B was being used to attempt to express the Greek language of the mainland. Why this happened is unknown but may have been due to Bronze Age Pompeii or a change in political hands.

1700-1600bce had a series of palace based kingdoms in the south and central greek mainland. information about their structure, social categories, economics, and territories has been discerned through the preservation of Linear B tablets in Knossos, Pylos, and Thebes. Socio-politicla stratification can be seen through the range of tomb types; this included plain rock chambers to highly elaborate tholos monuments.

The grandest of the 9 tholi is the Treasury of Atreus found in the citadel of Mycenaw. It has corbeled vaulting (stones above each other slightly overhang) which shows remarkable building abilities. This is further highlighted by the roads, bridges, dams and ports in the Kopais basin.

Mycenae is located in the NE corner of S Greece called Peloponnese. This citadel was first investigated due to its connection with Homers writings, beginning in the 1870s. Here, Heinrich Schliemann found a “grave circle” containing rich burials with golden masks. These were the types of graves after shaft graves. The site of Mycenae is surrounded by a massive wall of cyclopean masonry and a defensible enterance that is topped with a lion.

A key feature of Mycenae and almost all Mycenean sites is the addition of a megaron,k a three roomed rectangular strucutre which has a porch leading to an antichamber and then a columned hall with a central hearth. This is assumed to be the seat of power for rulers.

Linear B was found first by Evans in the site of Knossos enscribed on clay tablets. It was then later found in other Minoan sites which had similair but distinct tablets in comparison to Knossos. 3 types of script; heiroglyphic (2000bc), Linear A (1800bc-1500bc), and Linear B (1400-1300BC.

Burial of the Griffin Warrior found in the Pylos palace, one of many Mycenaean palaces but not as central as Mycenae. This burial was found in the Palace of Nestor. Highlighted social stratification in the early stages of Pylian polity.

Mycean overseas influence can be seen by its spread of fine pottery, found in Egypt, Levant, Cyprus, Crete, and other Aegean islands as well as Italy, Sicily, and Sardinia. Trade was the main mechanism for this as metal was needed for bronze working. Shipwrecks, sucha s Uluburun, suggest trade was only one part of a complex exchange, diplomacy, and multricultural network.

During the 1300BC, many Mycenaean sites showed signs of renewal or enhancement to their fortification. However, they were still later destroyed towards the end of 1200BC. Why is unknown. Occupation continued until around 1050 where power and material culture passed on.

close to the end of 2000bc there was great instability which led to a dark age. this led to urbanization throughout the 1000bc and further mosaic-like distribution of different polities and cultures. this created strong connections between different zones.

during the early iron age greek was in its dark age, 1100-700bce. this led to impoverishment and a sharp pop drop. this may have been due to the Dorian invasion. Revival of social statification can be seen in the heroon (shrine for a hero) of Toumba on the island of Euboea which had human burials, horse sacrifices, exotic trade goods.

The orientalizing and archaic period was froom 700-480bc. Led to the formation of polis (city states). linked by religion, economy, and polics. mostly free born males were the only people granted as citizens. this development is not found in all of greece. this led to forms of slavery.

Week 1 - Ancient Egypt

Farming led to pop growth and density, especially in resource rich areas. Except for highly mobile pastorialist groups, this required sedentism. Metallurgy, specifically for copper, improved societal efficiency. This led to nucleation of settlements but varied depending on the environment. This can be seen in the lower Nile which flooded the same time eery year which carried water and soil. When the flood receded, this land now had new agricultural potential. Water level could be so high settlements were destroyed but other times so low that crops died. However, this annual flooding was the reasion why pop continued to grow here. Main crops included emmer wheat, barlet, lentils, chickpeas, sesame and flax and had livestock like cattle and sheep. These resources originated from sw africa.

The predynastic period was from 4500-3000bc. It had abundant agriculture and had growing social stratification and trade networks. had copper, gold and silver metallurgy. had large settlements around 3500bc but most information is from grave goods.

Egypt has significant pop centers from 4000BC onwards. these were low-density which later became brick walled ones. movement of people adds to difficulties of archaeological investigation.

the egyptian dynastic state emerged around 3200bc and led to the first institution of government in africa. was influenced by mestopotamia. This was centered on the upper Nile in Hierakonpolis with the Nrmer Palette (ceremonial cosmetic palette) which records early kingship.

emergence of states is attributed to the development of writing which actually originated in Abydos, had an egyptian writing system earlier than the ones found in mesopotamia. had distrinctive monumental wiriting, cursive hieratic for writing on papyrus and demotic script for everyday uses.

chronology of ancient egypt is:

• dynasty 0 - 4500-3000bc

• dynasties 1-3 - 2950-2575bc (early dynastic)

• dynasties 4-8 - 2575-2150bc (old kingdom)

• dynasties 9-11 - 2125-1975bc (First intermediate period)

• dynasties 11-14 - 1975-1640bc (middle kingdom)

• dynasties 14-17 - 1630 - 1540bc (second intermediate period)

• dynasties 18-20 - 1540-1075bc (New Kingdom)

• dynasties 21-25 - 1075-715bc (Third intermediate period)

• dynasties 25-30 - 715-332 (late period)

• mecedonians/ptolemies - 332-30bc (greek administration)

• roman emperors - 30bc-642ce (roman/byzantine administation)

early dynastic includes 1,2,3rd dynasties from 2950-2575bc. increased use of writing and founding of the economic and administrative center of Memphis. Remarkable rulers include: Djoser, first king of the third dynasty who build the Saqqara step pyramids. His body was also buried in a chamber beneath it. Architect of this pyramid was Imhotep.

The old kingdom lasted from 2575-2150bc and encomassed the 4th-8th dynasties. had economic prosperity and political stability. state was pharoah centric and he had secular and sacred powers. pharoahs were seen as manifestations of Horus and later Ra, sun god. Pharoahs job was to mediate between the people and the gods. this led to vast construction of royal tombs and temples. most pyramids belong to this period. this had the building of the Giza pyramids during the 4th dynasty. had bits including one of the worlds oldest boats, preserved by the arid atmosphere. decrease in these buildings shows the weakening of the state. had forms of taxation, which was paid with labour, agriculture, or other goods. boats were used to transport the material needed for building. ended weaker with wealth more dispersed than centralized.

the first intermediate period was from 2125-1975 and suceeded by the middle kingdom period (which was followed by the second intermediate period). 1st was the 9-11 dynasty, then 11-14 dynasty, and 2nd was 14-17th dynasty. rival rulers focused on Thebes in the S and Herakleopolis in the N. Most important ing in the Theban dynasty was Mentuhotep who reunified the egyptian state.

the new kingdom and after covers from 1540-1075bc (new kingdom) dynastys 18-20, third intermediate 1075-715bc dynasties 21-25, late period 715-332bc dynasties 25-30, greek administration from 332-30bc with the macedonian and ptolemies dynasty and finally the roman/byzantine period from 30bc-642bce with roman emporers. The pharoah of Ahamose came to power in Thebes and drove the Hyksos rulers from the North. Egypt became a imperial power with much vaster control. Had a growth of army and priesthood. Many temples and other buildings were constructed. New Akhenaten capital of Amara which was abandoned after his death. 20k-50k pop with a gradient of rich/poor people. clay tablets known as the Amara letters which are written in cuneiform shed light on the relationship between Egpyt and Asian pops. By the end of the New Kingdom control had shrunk and became a series of seperate states.

this led to the third intermiedate which ended when egypt reunified under the Nubian ruler of Piye. The late period then ended when Alexander the great occupied egypt. this led to the greco-roman period with it becoming a colony by 30bc. state formation was a product of violence with the large peasant class being treated badly as upper classes spent resources on themselves.

the pyramids give insight into the economy during this period. alignment may have been based on observations of the north sky.

Week 1 - Lecture Notes

6000bc had development of neolithic culture w small villages and growing of barley and pig and sheep breeding. in 3000b chad a new bronze age. minoan civilizationw as from 2000-1500bc and had grain, sheep, olives, and exports of wool and olive oil.

phaistos disk which was inscribed with heirglyphs from 2000bc in the arliest phases of minoan civilisation.

linear b is older than linear a

avaris is in the east delta and close to the mediterranean, it was a contact zone for inner egypt and the mediterranean (levant, anatolia, cyprus, and aegean)

mycenaen civilization was from 1600-1100bc. and had helladic indo-euro immigrants from 2000bc onwards.

ceramics included imported LBA aegean/mycenean ceramics which are found throughout the mediterranean, near east, and egyp. had a stirrup jar with 2 handles and vessels containing wines, oils, or unguents. pottery in egypt is found in politicla centers mainly, but also in towns, houses and tombs. this suggests a trickle down effect to the spread of pottery depending on class.

the mycenaean civilisation fell because of limited agriculture, top heavy administration, and thnic and cultural tensions. furthermore, external factors include vunerable networks, and the fall of LBA kingdoms. from 1000bc on there was the dorian invasions which further changed their network.

egyptian prehistory dates from 30,000-5500bc w the rise of pre-dynastic and early dynastic societies from 5500-2700bc. the old kingdom and first intermediate from 2700-2055 had the djoser pyramid where kings were buried in the north, shows the start of grave architerture. also had the sphinx with pharoah khafra face.

the middle kngdom and second intermediate was from 2055-1550bc. had the tomb of deir el-Bahri which had detailed models of boats and agriculture. well known is tomb of Meketra which wooden models dating to the 1200bc’s. period also had cities developing, such as the pyramid city of Kahun in the 1300’s which was important for domestics. had a brick mould, chisel, and plumb.

the site of beni hasan also dates to the middle kingdom and is a series of royal graves and tombs for nomarchs built and used from 1200-1900

semitic people used horses and chariots, specifically the levant canaan people.

During the New Kingdom under Ahmose, following after his father Pharoah Kao, conquered Hyksos and gets their territory in Egypt and the Levant. During this period, the empire reached Nubia and the Levant, Nubia had gold and other resources and the Levant allowed access to trade routes. This wealth flowed back to egypt to facilitate the rise in building projects. most prominent rivals were the Mitanni and later the Hittites.

Built in the late Middle Kingdom and expanded in the New Kingdom was the temple complex of Karnak. Also the buidling of the funerary temple of Hatshepsut.

During the Marna period Amenhotep reformed the religion into one around one god, Aten, this led to him changing his name and the formation of the new capital Akhetaten. He focused on internal policies so lost control of the levant. quick reversal happened after his death.

dynasty 19 was the Ramesside period. He was soon succeeded by Seti I. Seti initated Levantine campaigns to regain the lost Levant territory. They had control for some time but this land changed side agains when Seti left and the Hitties took over. Seti died w/o launching a new campaign and was suceeded by Ramses II.

Rmases II reigned from 12-78-1213BC, longest after Pepi II. He was seen as great phroah with lots of building and several military campaigns.

The site of Deir el-Medina was a worker settlement for those working in the valley of the kings between the 18-20th dynasties.

Week 2 - Axial Age

Human Trafficking in Ancient Meditterranean- Had a lot of mobility, this led to colonial establishments, troop movement, trade ect. Invisible human flow of slaves, vhattel slaves were needed to show the new economy, they were conquests of war or piracy and slave trade was unapolagetic. at least 100m people involved.

The Classical Period- Lasted from 480-338BCE, following the archaic period. City states were small in extent and population, such as the Cyclaid island of Keos being only 15km². this led to many political and military alliances with the bigger states. These were Athens, Thebes, Argos, and Sparta. Shared language and culture (Homer) among men made anyone else a “barbaric” outsider, a term which originally meant someone who couldn’t speak Greek. This created Hellenes and a Hellenic culture among men.

• Polyplesian War

• Persian War (spartans won over athens)

• Expansion of Athens and creation of tax-paying “allies”

• Surprising win against “barbarians” boosted self confidence

4 panhellenic sanctuaries found in Delphi, Olympia, Nemea, and Isthmia brought culture together across Greece even when there was conflict. Unity in the face of “barbarians”

Olymia & Other Panhellic Sanctuaries- Olympia is a famous panhellenic festival. In antiquity it was also important. Oldest of 4 panhellenic festivals, uniterrrupted since 776BCE. During the 4M bc, they were converted into 3 different festivals due to the new christian emperor, the pythian (586bc), isthmian (580bc), and nemean (573bc) games. Olympics were primarily religious occasions w a Doric temple (456bc) made for a chryselephantine of Zeus.

Features of the Classical City- Polis was both an urban center (astu) and a rural hinterland (chora). Paradoxical countryside, farming provided food but also absorbed energy from the majority of pre-industrial pops. Chora had marble quarries, silver.

Greek Sculptures- Erosion has removed most of the colour from the white marble statues. Different types of analysis, such as ultraviolet, x-ray fluorescence can show these colours traces

Greek Colonization- 8th century bce onwards men were sent out to begin new colonies over the next 2 centuries. Mainly in Siciliy and Italy, France, North African coasts, and the Black Sea. No one cause for this, may have been, in some cases, overpop or tensions at home, exploitation of natural resources (metal ores, grain, or fish), or to increase trade. Had tomb’s for colonies founders. Hinterlands were marked with signs. Placement of religious monuments to signify Greek ownership of the land and were high up, also following traditional Greek architectural orders. Included peripteral temples (columns encircling an inner temple) which were not common in Greece but these outside colonies. No sign of trying to “civilise” indigenous peoples, but economic benefits exchanged both ways with prestige gifts given to indeigenous rulers.

Necropolis at Metapontum- More famous Greek colony in S Italy. Established by settlers from Peloponnese in 7th century BC. Rich choro and covered 40km². Had up to 1000 farms during its peak in 4th century BC. Necropolis of Pantanello cemetery, 3.5km away from the city. 324 burials, mostly inhumations, from 580BCE-280BCE of people who lived in the area. More female burials than male, families buried in the same plot.

Phoenicians and Phoenician Expansion- Levantine people along the coast of modern Lebanon. 1st millenia BCE had city states, including Tyre and Sidon, which were later absorbed into the expanding Assyrian and Persian empires. Farmed surrounding countryside, had crafting of glass and ivory, long-distance seafaring and trading. Greek akphabet was borrowed from the Phoenican model and this was passed W to Esturia and Rome in the 8th century BCE. Artifacts can also be found in Greek sites. Had colonial foundations in Spain by the 8th century BCE. Proximity to Greek settlements led to conflict. Metal baring and seafaring areas were where they settled (tin, copper, gold, silver).

The Etruscans and the Italian Peninsula- Mid 1st millenia BCE had 3 categories: Greek colonies (South), Etruscan cities (Central-West), and assemblage of other Italic peoples (eg Samnites and Umbrians) (Central). Most info about them is from Roman written sources so were sometimes shown as less civilised, such as the Samnites who were defeated by the Romans in conflict during the 4-3rd century BCE, as they opposed Roman expansion.

Alternatively, Etrusians were shown as elusive, have 10K+ surviving documents but difficult to translate and short. This allowed more changes to be made to the truth. More information about them has been collected through looking at landscapes, settlements, non-funerary art and culture. Lived in fortified hilltop city states, had expansionist policy at some point but were brought into the Roman sphere of influence around 7th century BCE. Persued connections with the Greeks and Phoenicians. Greek influence is seen in art and architecture. Portonaccio temple (Vecci) dates to 500BCE and is of distinctive Greek model. Class heirarchy based on graves. Circular to rectangular graves, rock-cut structures which mimicked houses found in Cerveteri (Banditaccia cemetery). Elite tombs were decorated with scenes of feasting, games, or religious imagery. Paintings in Taquinia cemetery show they ate reclined but woman also ate with men, uncommon in Greek culture. Found in graves are imported Greek pots, which were intentionally made for export (oils or perfumes).

Week 2 - Afro-Eurasia Connected

Growing Powers, Growing Territories- Larger territorial entities began to emerge in the 1st century BCE, mainly powered by the military. Punic power of Carthage controlled North Africa littorally and Spain, Rome covered the central Italian peninsula. Assertive powers came into contact with each other and absorbed each other depending on who was more powerful.

Alexander and the East- Rise of Philip II of Macedon (383-326BCE) persuaded citizens to act in a more Greek way, opening up politics between Macedon and Greece. Macedon became a considerable force, due to the rich gold mines in Mount Pangaion, and he was able to keep up with the agressive politics of the 4th century BCE. He defeated a Greek coalition in 338, planning to expand eastward with his son Alexander. He was assasinated in 336BCE. Macedon’s had rich burial practices, as shown in the burials found in Vergina. Temple-like facades with cremations in gold boxes, lavish grave goods, tomb was then covered in a mound called a tumulus.

The Conquests of Alexander- Brought SW Asia and Mediterranean closer to create the Hellenistic world. Won conquests in Granikos River (Issus, Turkey), Gaugamela (Iraq), and the combination of his Macedonian and Greek forces defeated the larger Darius III Persian Army. He annexed domains from the Mediterranean to Afghanistan and Egypt. Went to the the NW of India in 326/325. Manipulated his personal image and had propaganda. Wanted to be seen as devine, such as wearing ram horns or lion skin in his depictions. Adminstrative and military infrastructure was implanted. City foundations were often named after him and they went from Egypt, Tajikistan, and Ai Khanoum in Afghanistan with the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi. Sites like this have been destroyed due to the Taliban and other groups.

The Hellenistic World- After Alexander died, the empire was broken up by his generals and de facto heirs. After some killing and conflict, 3 main leaders emerged; Antigonid in Macedonia, Selucid in Syria and the Near East, and Ptolemaic kingdom of Egypt. Alexander was now worshipped as a god and leaders cemented their rule through their alliances to him. This led to Ptolemy I (d. 282CE), who ruled over Egypt, to hijack Alexanders body from going to Babylon so it would be buried in Alexandia, where it has not yet be found.

Hellenistic was coined in the 19th century as a description of the years after Alexanders death due to the Ptolemies, spanning from 323-31BCE. Had expanding political units, trade links, intellectual exchange, and travel. Had developments in literature, philosophy, medicine, science, religion, and warfare. This included the use of elephants in war and the translation of the Old Testament into Greek. Created a cultural koine (commonality) based on the Greek language, styles, and practices. But there was still numerous languages and cultures used at a local level. Permagon was the capital of a Hellenistic society in Turkey and had large monuments such as the Great Altar of Zeus and other dedications ot Permaganise kings, these types of large monuments were common (eg the Colloseum). “Barbarian” culture was adopted by Hellenist’s aesthetically and customarily.

Carthage and the Carthaginian Empire- Later 1st millenia BCE had growth and expansion in the Hellenistic West, the growth of Punic (Carthage) culture and Phoenician colonies and rise of new North African Carthage empire. Trade and trade contacts, both maritime and trans-Saharan, remained important for the economy. Some Carthaginian exports were carpets, purple dye, jewelry, timber, and animal hides. They also had many imports from all over the Mediterranean and had especially Greek and Egyptian influence on their artistic and architectural city styles. 2 Carthaginian Punic-period harbors, one for commerce and one for war. Also had landowning aristocracy with the hinterland supproting the capital.

Tensions rose between Carthage and Roman powers. Carthage was a Phoenician colony so had brought many Levantine practices to North Africa, so were viewed as slightly “barbaric” by the romns. They honored dieties and had some child sacrifice, the latter which was not found in Rome. Had the Punic wars in 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE, incl Hannibals invasion of Italy where he brought war elephants and lasted 16 years. Rome eventually won and Cathage was sacked in 146BCE. Usually Rome was more generous with their enemies but this was an outlier, most of the population was killed or enslaved, buildings and records destroyed, and the territory was converted into a new African province. Carthage was eventually resettled by Rome.

Alexandria-by-Egypt- Alexander destroyed many cultures on his way to conquest as far as India. Alexandria-by-Egypt was founded in 331BCE and provided Egypt with a port that was unaffected by whether the Nile was flooding or not. He build a megalopolis here, with a wall over 15km in circumference. It also had a 1km artificial mole which linked it to the Pharos islet and created another harbor. After his death, Ptolemy I and later Plotemaic kings added on with a 135m lighthouse and the library. Much of it is now underwayer, sinking by 6-8m sink Antiquity.

Week 2 - Lecture Notes

Greece

1000-500BCE were the foundation years for Greek civilization. Strong influence from the Near East and an “orientalizing” period. 1000-750BCE was a dark age, the Greeks seeked their fortune overseas and had contact with Asia minor, Cyprus, and the Near East leading to the Archaic period.

Phoenician colonisation- Tyre to Sidon, Spain (Carthage), Sicility (metalbearing), Alfabet, craqfted ivory and class

Greek colonisation- Overpopulation at home, internal tension, explotation of new resources

Archaic Period- 750-500BCE, had innovations with bronze and iron. New styles of pottery painting, free standing statues, new script, polis formation, and elite political body

Magna Graecia- Greek colonies in S Italy and Sicily. Have temples.

Hoplite- Heavily armed infantrymen with a shield, fight in a phalanx and are the base of power for the aristocratic leader (turannos). 500BCE they were mostly gone and people (denos) had a bigger role. In Athens, this was seen in the Cleisthenes reform (508-7BCE)

Afro-Eurasia- In 612BCE the Babylonians and Medes coalition conquered Nineveh (Assyria). This made Babylon the first world center, but were soon eclipsed by the Achaemenid dynasty which built the Persian empire. Through conquests of Cyrus → Cambyses → Egypt → Near East → Iran, they were poltically united under Darius I, who brought about standardization between them, such as making Aramaic the lingua franca . In 490BCE he tried to conquer Greece but was defeated at Marathon and in 480BCE Xerxes tried again, winning in Thermopylae, taking Athens (destroying the Acropolis), but was then defeated at Salamis in a sea battle with the Athenians trireme. During this time there were also Carthaginian conflicts centered on Sicily.

The Greek Polis- Had the chora hinterland and urban astu. Chora are almost never mentioned in texts but depicted in art, astu’s had an acropolis and agora. Politeia was the idea that all citizens have a voice in government, meaning constitution or body of citizens. The Acropolis of Athens had a high limestone table, mainly for ritual function, honoring dozens of deties but focused on the goddess Athena. The Athenian Agora was a open space for the public, business, and adminstration and had a Tholos, Bouleuterion, and Stoa.

Ostracism- Citizens would write names on a pot sherd to expel a person for 10 years.

Tetradrachm- Engraved to be attributes, such as with an owl for Athena

Piraeus- Port of Athens, connected to the city by long walls and in times of threat the city could still recieve supplies through a safe route.

Panhellenism- Wider Hellenic attitude and was created due to state unity. The Persian Invasion of 490 had poleis uniting to defend against a common enemy. Had panhellenic sanctuaries where games, festivals, and competitions could be held. These were for the god(desses) of Delphi, Isthmia, Nemea, and Olympia.

Greek World Around 500BC- First Persian invasion. 490BCE had the Battle of Marathon, Stoa Poikile (Athenia Agora) shows the victory of the Athenians. Under King Darius I from 521-386BCE the Persian empire strengthened, leading to conflict with the Greeks. King Xerxes was his successor and tried a large scale conquest of Greece in 480BCE , this led to poleis uniting to defend themselves. King Leonidas of Sparta attempting to stop the Persians but was eventually killed and they continued to advance to the South. The Persians then sacked Athens and destroyed the Acropolis. This created Perserschutt which is the layer of Archaic debris due to the destruction underneath the classical phase. in 480BCE there was the naval battle of Salamis with an Athenian victory, Themistocles (Athenian politician) ordered 200 triremes. In the Battle of Plataiai in 479BCE the small Hoplite army, led by the Pausanias, won. From 447-413BCE Pericles led to the rebuilding of the Athenian Acropolis.

Propylaia- GAteway to the Acropolis that connects with 2 adjoining wings.

erechtheion- Replaced temple destroyed by the persians.

caryatids- statues

PArthenon- constructed between 447-438 by Iktinos and Kallikrates, architects. Sculpted by Phidias.

metopes- rectangle blocks above the architrave. Placed on the Parthenon. Themes of Gigantomachy, Centauromachy, Amazonomachy, and the fall of Troy.

Parthenon Frieze- continious procession of 115+ marble blocks. Shows horseman

Acropolis in the Hellenistic- After winning in the Granikos river, Alexander dedicated 300 shields to Athena.

Theatre of Dionysus Eleauthereus- theatre from 6th century BCE to the late 4th BCE. Expanded during the Hellenistic.

Hellenistic World

Diadochio: heirs of the persians and kingdoms, included antigonids, sleucids, ptolemies, and quasi independent city states. lasted 323-275BC

Hellenistic Kingdoms: 275-150BC

Graceo-Roman Phase- 150-31BC

336BC- King of Macedon killed, Alexander succeeded. Tombs in Vergina at the 4th century BC. Had a gold wreth and larnax. In 334BC, rebels were crushed near Macedon and this led to the freeding of Greek cities from the Persians in Asia Minor. In 333BC the Persian army were defeated in Issos and in 331-330 Darius III retreats and is then murdered. Alexander suceedes as the next Persian king. 324BC Alexander marries Susa to consolidate his empire. Mass wedding between the Macedonians and Persian women.

Week 3

Rise/Fall of the Roman Empire

Located on the river Tiber, running to the port of Ostia. Distributed over 7 hills. Protection. Founded 753BC. Ruled by Kings. Authority symbol of the fasces (facism bundle of sticks). Regal period ended with the explusion of Tarquinius Superbus. 509BC had the establishment of the Roman Republic. Led to temples and shrines by the mid-1st century BCE.

Growth and Crisis

Expanded through wars, annexation, and alliances. This led to Italian tribes, Etruscan cities, Greek colonies all being under Roman control. Diverse and complex roots. Final centuries of 1st M BCE, grew into province of ASia in 133BCE. CHanged military, standards of living, and gods. Strained traditional leadership. Rewards for military service via poltiical and social (and financial) authority was the catalyst for this growth. Struggles between the many and the traditional. Battle of Actium in 31BCE marked thr end of the last great Hellenistic kingdom, Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt. This was between Augustus (Octavian, winner) and Mark Antony and Cleopatra.

A Mediterranean Empire

In 27BCE, when Augustus adopted his new title, he changed much of ROme. He spent a lot on the capital and made an autobiography called Res Gestae. Military enforced peace known as pax Romana. He died in 14BCE leaving his son TIberius. Augustus made the new image of the Roman empire through propoganda in the form of literature, art, and architecture. Led to a chain of emperors ruling over the Mediterranean. Shape and size of the empire changed constantly.

Rome, Center of the World

Capital (urbs). Urbs paid no taxes, had food handouts, and were well kept. Pleasing the people was desirable. Not an easy of healthy place to live. Basilicas are large columned halls used for proceedings. Experienced troubles in 3rd century CE leading to the building of walls. This danger led to emporers being buried in the heart of the city instead of outside in the necrotauriums. Well-engineered roads were a sign of prosperity. Similar structures connected cities.

The Provinces and Frontiers

Rome/Italy as core and provinces as periphery. Imperial annexation led to taxes levied across the empir. Resources were taken and passed out under imperial control. Spain and Portugal had silver, gold, and copper mines ruled by the ROmans. Lots of mining activity leading to spikes of pollution shown in Greenlands ice cores. Imperial purple of Granodiorite. This led to a lot of labor and technical expertise.

Reactions to Roman Annexation

Gallia, Hispania, and Britannia were changed a lot due to annexation. Stayed loosly organized and under-urbanized. Communities in the west embraced many roman cultural traits. New identities were created by they desired to still appear Roman. Revolts from Jewish people as they would not make sacrifices, had 2 major revellions in 1st/2nd centuries BCE in Judaea. Masada was where one was and the Temple of Judaea was the other. Masada ended with mass Jewish defended suicide.

Madhia Shipwreck

Had rich cargo of marble columns. Dated to 80-70BCE. Had other goods from all over the Mediterranean.

The Roman Army

Placed in “troubled” areas, such as Masada. Usually more of a guarding force than a battling one.

The Later Empire

Religous plurality. Hadrians Wall sites. Diety of Mithras, who had a cult that appealed to the Roman armies want for discipline and hierachy. Represented struggle of darkness and light by slaying a cosmic bull. Monotheistic religions sometimes faced hostility from the Romans, such as Christian and Jewish people. Great Persecution of 4th cdenture CE. But Christianity was later accepted by Constantine. 3rd century CE under the rule of Maxentius, had the splitting of rule over different imperial capitals to be able to maintain the powers.

Pompeii - All Problems Solved

79CE. Became Roman gradually.

Week 3 Lecture Notes

Orientalising period - 1000bce - 500bce

1000-750 bce- dark age (but like lowkey not really, intermiedate period)

750- 500BCE- archaic period