Classical Conditioning 🐶

Classical conditioning, also known as Pavlovian conditioning, is a type of learning that occurs through association. This concept was first demonstrated by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov in the 1890s.

Pavlov's Experiment

Pavlov's experiment involved ringing a bell every time a dog was about to be fed. Initially, the bell had no effect on the dog, but the food did. However, after repeated pairings of the bell and food, the dog began to salivate in response to the bell alone.

Key Terms

• Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally elicits a response without any prior learning.

• Unconditioned Response (UR): The natural response to an unconditioned stimulus.

• Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response.

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A neutral stimulus that, through association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to elicit a conditioned response.

• Conditioned Response (CR): The response to a conditioned stimulus.

The Little Albert Experiment 🤱

John Watson and Rosalyn Rayner conducted an experiment on a 9-month-old baby, known as Little Albert, to demonstrate classical conditioning in humans.

The Experiment

Watson and Rayner presented Little Albert with a series of stimuli, including a white rat, a dog, and a rabbit. Initially, the baby showed no fear response to any of these stimuli. However, when a loud noise was paired with the presentation of the white rat, the baby began to cry. After repeated pairings, the white rat alone elicited a fear response in the baby.

Generalization

The fear response was generalized to other stimuli, including a dog, a rabbit, and a white mask worn by Watson.

Ethical Concerns

The Little Albert experiment raises several ethical concerns, including:

• Lack of informed consent: The baby's mother was not informed about the experiment, and the baby was not able to provide consent.

• Harm to the participant: The experiment caused the baby distress and potentially long-term harm.

• Lack of control: The experiment had only one participant and lacked control conditions.

• Professional competence: The experiment was not well-designed, and the researchers did not follow proper procedures.

Legacy of the Experiment

Despite its methodological flaws, the Little Albert experiment contributed to the development of behaviorism and our understanding of classical conditioning. It also highlights the importance of ethics in research and the need for informed consent and proper procedures.

Behaviorism 🤖

Behaviorism is a psychological theory that emphasizes the role of environment and learning in shaping behavior. The Little Albert experiment helped to launch the behaviorist movement, which posits that behavior is the result of external stimuli and conditioning.

The United States has the worst rate of low birth weight, premature births, infant mortality, and maternal mortality among all industrialized countries.

Comparison to Other Countries

State-by-State Comparison

The states with the worst statistics for maternal and infant mortality are:

• Louisiana

• Mississippi

• Alabama

The states with the best statistics are:

• Vermont

• New Hampshire

• California

Percentage of Low Birth Weight Babies by State

Unplanned Pregnancy Rate

The US has the highest unplanned pregnancy rate in the developed world, with approximately 60% of pregnancies being unplanned. This is compared to less than 10% in most European countries.

Sex Education in the US

Abstinence-Only Education

Comprehensive Sex Education

Barriers to Effective Sex Education

• Lack of comprehensive sex education programs

• Abstinence-only education

• Limited access to birth control information

• Parental opt-out policies

• Awkwardness and discomfort discussing sex with parents or guardians

Importance of Comprehensive Sex Education

• Reduces unplanned pregnancies

• Reduces STIs

• Improves relationships and communication

• Empowers individuals to make informed decisions about their health and well-being## 🤰 Pregnancy and Healthcare Access

Barriers to Effective Birth Control

• Lack of comprehensive sex education in schools

• Limited access to reliable birth control methods, such as IUDs and implants

• High cost of birth control, particularly for those without insurance

The Importance of Prenatal Care

• Regular prenatal care visits can help prevent complications and ensure a healthy pregnancy

• However, many women, especially those without insurance, may not receive adequate prenatal care due to financial constraints

Maternal and Infant Mortality Rates

The United States has one of the highest maternal and infant mortality rates among developed countries.

Factors Contributing to High Blood Pressure in Young Adults

• Genetics: Family history can play a role in high blood pressure

• Stress: Chronic stress can contribute to high blood pressure

• Diet: Consuming high amounts of sodium, often found in processed and fast food, can increase blood pressure

Healthcare Access Issues

• Lack of Health Insurance: Many young adults do not have health insurance, making it difficult to access prenatal care and other medical services

• Limited Maternity Coverage: Even with health insurance, some plans may not cover maternity care or may have high out-of-pocket costs

• Rural Healthcare Shortages: Rural areas often have limited access to OB-GYNs and maternity services, making it difficult for women to receive adequate care

The Cost of Having a Baby

The high cost of having a baby can be a significant burden for many families, particularly those without insurance or with limited financial resources.

Consequences of Limited Healthcare Access

• Delayed Prenatal Care: Women may not receive timely prenatal care due to financial constraints, leading to a higher risk of complications

• Increased Risk of Maternal and Infant Mortality: Limited access to healthcare can increase the risk of maternal and infant mortality, particularly in rural areas with limited medical resources.## 🤰‍♀ Maternity Leave and Postpartum Care in the US

The United States is the only developed country without guaranteed maternity leave. The closest thing to maternity leave in the US is the Family Medical Leave Act (FMLA), which allows for up to 12 weeks of unpaid leave for employees of companies with more than 50 employees.

Discharge and Postpartum Care

In the US, patients are typically discharged from the hospital quickly due to insurance company rules. This can lead to complications, such as blood clots, that may not be apparent until after discharge.

In contrast, many other countries provide longer hospital stays to monitor for complications.

Follow-up Care

In most states, there is no follow-up care for discharged mothers and babies. Some countries, such as Great Britain, have implemented programs like mother-baby nurses who visit new mothers at home to check on their health and the baby's health.

🤱‍♀ The Birth Process

The fetal brain signals the release of hormones that start uterine contractions and labor.

Stages of Labor

• Active Labor: The cervix dilates from 4-10 cm, and contractions become more frequent and intense.

• Transition: The cervix dilates from 7-10 cm, and contractions are very intense.

• Pushing: The cervix is fully dilated, and the mother pushes the baby out.

Average Labor Time

• Firstborn babies: 12 hours (normal up to 24 hours)

• Later births: shorter labor time, often tied to genetics

Precipitous Delivery

A precipitous delivery is a very rapid delivery, often occurring in under an hour. This can be a concern for mothers who have a history of rapid deliveries.

👶 Newborn Assessment

After birth, the baby is assessed using the Apgar Scale, which evaluates:

• Heart rate

• Breathing

• Muscle tone

• Color

• Reflexes

The Apgar Scale is scored from 0-2 in each category, with a total score of 7 or above indicating a healthy baby.

🏥 Medical Intervention

Some common medical interventions during delivery include:

• Fetal monitoring: using electrodes to monitor the baby's heartbeat

• Oxygen therapy: providing oxygen to the baby

• Medication: administering medication to the mother or baby as needed## Labor and Delivery 🤰

Monitoring the Baby's Heart Rate

During contractions, the baby's heart rate is closely monitored to ensure it doesn't drop too much. A significant drop in heart rate can indicate a problem, such as the umbilical cord being wrapped around the baby's neck or the baby grabbing onto the cord and cutting off its own blood supply.

Epidurals

Epidurals are a popular pain relief option for many women during labor. An epidural is an injection given in the spine that numbs the lower part of the body, allowing the woman to remain aware and able to push during labor.

Induced Labor

Induced labor is when medication is given to stimulate contractions and start labor. This is often done if the baby is overdue (past 42 weeks) or if there are concerns about the baby's health.

Cesarean Sections (C-Sections)

A C-section is a surgical delivery where the baby is born through an incision in the mother's abdomen. C-sections are often performed in emergency situations, such as when the baby is in distress or the mother's life is at risk.

Reasons for C-Sections:

Newborn Assessment

Newborns are assessed using the Bracelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale, which evaluates 46 behaviors, including reflexes.

Reflexes:

Examples of reflexes include:

• Rooting reflex: when the baby turns its head towards a stimulus and tries to suck

• Sucking reflex: when the baby sucks on a stimulus, such as a finger or pacifier

• Grasping reflex: when the baby grips onto a stimulus, such as a finger or object

Bonding and Skin-to-Skin Contact

Bonding between the mother and baby is crucial, especially in the NICU. Skin-to-skin contact, also known as kangaroo care, can help premature babies regulate their heartbeat and promote bonding.

Postpartum Depression

Postpartum depression is a serious condition that can affect new mothers. Risk factors include:

• History of depression

• Lack of sleep

• Physical problems after delivery

• Struggles with baby care

Symptoms may include:

• Baby blues (mild depression)

• Postpartum depression (more severe depression)

• Postpartum psychosis (rare but serious condition)## Maternal Mortality in the United States 🤰

Definition of Maternal Mortality

Causes of Maternal Mortality

The major causes of maternal mortality in the United States include:

• Cardiovascular disease

• Hemorrhage

• High blood pressure causing seizures and strokes

• Blood clots

• Infection

Severe Maternal Morbidity

• Examples of severe maternal morbidity include:

  • Blood clots

  • Seizures

  • Strokes

  • Receiving a blood transfusion

  • End organ damage (e.g., kidney failure)

Preventability of Maternal Mortality and Morbidity

• 60% of maternal deaths and severe complications are thought to be preventable

• Concrete steps and standard procedures can be implemented to prevent these bad outcomes and save women's lives

• Examples of preventable measures include:

  • Timely treatment of high blood pressure with antihypertensive medication

  • Accurate tracking of blood loss during delivery to detect hemorrhage sooner

The Alliance for Innovation in Maternal Health (AIM) Program 🏥

Overview

The AIM program is a collaborative effort between the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, other health care organizations, researchers, and community organizations to implement standard care practices in hospitals and health systems across the country.

Safety Bundles

• Example of a safety bundle: Hemorrhage Bundle

  • Cart with emergency equipment (e.g., IV line, oxygen mask, medications)

  • Accurate measurement of blood loss (e.g., weighing sponges and pads)

  • Protocols for massive transfusions

  • Regular trainings and drills

Success Stories

• California has seen a 21% reduction in near-death from hemorrhage among hospitals that implemented the hemorrhage bundle in the first year

Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Maternal Mortality and Morbidity 🌎

Statistics

Disparities in Quality of Care

• Black women tend to deliver in hospitals with worse outcomes for both black and white women, regardless of patient risk factors

• Quality of care in the setting of childbirth is an underlying cause of racial and ethnic disparities in maternal mortality and severe maternal morbidity in the United States

Example: Dr. Shalon Murphy's Story

Dr. Shalon Murphy, a CDC epidemiologist, died from complications of high blood pressure after childbirth despite being seen multiple times by healthcare professionals. Her story highlights the lack of standards in postpartum care and the need for improved quality of care to address racial and ethnic disparities in maternal mortality and morbidity.## 🏥 Quality of Care Across the Care Continuum

High-quality care across the care continuum is crucial for reducing maternal mortality and severe maternal morbidity rates. This type of care involves providing access to safe and reliable contraception throughout women's reproductive lives.

Before Pregnancy

• Preconception care: managing chronic illness and optimizing health before pregnancy

• Providing access to safe and reliable contraception

During Pregnancy

• High-quality prenatal care: regular check-ups and monitoring to ensure a healthy pregnancy

• High-quality delivery care: ensuring a safe and healthy delivery for both the mother and the baby

After Pregnancy

• Postpartum care: monitoring and addressing the mother's physical and emotional health after delivery

• Interpregnancy care: providing care and support between pregnancies to ensure a healthy next pregnancy

🚨 The Importance of High-Quality Care: Maria's Story

Maria's story highlights the importance of high-quality care in preventing maternal mortality and severe maternal morbidity. During her first pregnancy, Maria's elevated blood pressure was not taken seriously, and she suffered a seizure. However, during her second pregnancy, her healthcare team listened to her concerns, monitored her closely, and provided timely interventions, resulting in a healthy delivery.

Key Factors in Maria's Successful Outcome

📊 The Impact of High-Quality Care on Maternal Mortality and Morbidity

Providing high-quality care to every pregnant woman in every community can significantly reduce maternal mortality and severe maternal morbidity rates.

The Current State of Maternal Mortality and Morbidity

• The United States has unacceptably high rates of maternal deaths and life-threatening complications during delivery

• Decades of poor performance on maternal mortality have had devastating consequences for moms, babies, and families

The Path Forward

To improve maternal mortality and morbidity rates, we must:

• Value pregnant women from every community

• Provide high-quality care across the care continuum

• Utilize standard care practices in delivery facilities

• Address social determinants of health to achieve equitable health outcomes