empiricism,the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation structuralism,an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the structural elements of the human mind functionalism,a school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function-how they enable us to adapt, survive and flourish experimental psychology,the study of behavior and thinking using the (scientific) experimental method behaviorism,the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2) humanistic psychology,historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth psychology,the science of behavior and mental processes nature-nurture issue,the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture natural selection,the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival with most likely be passed on to succeeding generations level of analysis,the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon biopsychosocial approach,an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis biological psychology,a branch of psychology that studies the links between biological (including neuroscience and behavior genetics) and psychological processes evolutionary psychology,the study of the roots of behavior and mental processes using the principles of natural selection psychodynamic psychology,a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders behavioral psychology,the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning cognitive psychology,the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicatin social-cultural psychology,the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking psychometrics,the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits basic research,pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base developmental psychology,the scientific study of physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span educational psychology,the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning personality psychology,the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling and acting social psychology,the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another applied research,scientific study that aims to solve practical problems industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology,the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces human factors psychology,the study of how people and machines interact and the design of safe and easily used machines and environments counseling psychology,a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being clinical psychology,a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders psychiatry,a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who often provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy SQ3R Method,method which includes survey, questions, read, recite and review reading passage testing effect,enhanced memory after retrieving (for a test), rather than simply rereading, information community psychology,a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups positive psychology,the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive cognitive neuroscience,the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language) hindsight bias,The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it double blind procedure,An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies independent variable,The experimental factor that is manipulated--the variable whose effect is being studied dependent variables,The outcome factor -- the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable mode,The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution mean,The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtaining by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores median,The middle score in a distribution--half the scores are above it and half are below it standard deviations,A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score random assignment,Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance ,thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups random sampling,A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion scatter plot,A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation illusory correlation,The perception of a relationship where none exists case study,An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles naturalistic observation,Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation correlation,A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. The correlation coefficient is the mathematical expression of the relationship, ranging from -1 to +1 experiment,A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effects on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant variable replication,Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances statistical significance,A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance operational definition,A statement of the procedures used to define research variables. critical thinking,thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions. theory,an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations hypothesis,a testable prediction, often implied by a theory population,all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study correlation coefficient,a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1) placebo,experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent. placebo effect,the phenomenon in which the expectations of the participants in a study can influence their behavior experimental group,in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable. control group,in an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment. confounding variable,a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment. range,the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution normal curve/distribution,a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (68% fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer near the extremes inferential statistics,numerical methods used to determine whether research data support a hypothesis or whether results were due to chance culture,the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next informed consent,an ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate debriefing,the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants longitudinal study,researchers follow the same subjects over an extended period of time. confirmation bias,experimenter might consciously or unconsciously look to confirm what they already believe about their hypothesis descriptive statistics,describe the basic features of the data in a study. They provide simple summaries about the sample and the measures. variance,measures how far a data set is spread out. The technical definition is "The average of the squared differences from the mean." survey,a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group sampling bias,a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample skewed distribution,a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value histogram,a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution validity,the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to gestalt,an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.