South African Political History II (3/21/24)

Apartheid Timeline

• 1652-1948: White settlers gradually occupy land and regulate lives of non-whites

• 1910: Union of South African formed with most non-whites excluded from voting

• 1948: National Party begins implementing a formal apartheid system.

• 1960: Sharpeville massacre followed by severe crackdown. ANC banned; forms armed wing Umkhonto We Sizwe, “ Spear of the Nation.”

• 1976: Soweto uprising marks beginning of end.

• 1990: Mandela released, ANC legalized, negotiations for transition begin.

• 1994: Formal transfer of power.

A.L. Geyer

• Chairman of the South African Bureau of Racial Affairs

→ What is the logic of apartheid that he promotes

→ Why did many whites support apartheid?

The Logic of Apartheid

• Geyer piece gives justifications for apartheid…

1) Blacks are inferior and need whites to save them

2) Blacks and whites are fundamentally different.

3) Because of Bantu migration, blacks have no more rights to land than whites

4) Claims “white nation” is under threat and must defend itself.

Opposition to Apartheid

• How does the Freedom Charter challenge apartheid?

→ Principle of non-racialism rather than black nationalism, south Africa should be for all races

→ Demands basic political freedoms

→ Also includes demands for second generation rights like housing, education, and free employment.

→ Contains both political and economic demands.

• How does Nelson Mandela defend himself?

→ Bases his moral claims on his Xhosa traditions and roots in South Africa to fight idea of outside agitators

→ Justifies the decision to use violence, because Blacks face violence and have no other alternative to force change. Peaceful protest has been met with violence.

→ Violence will be targeted and constrained.

Why did the Soweto Uprising mark Beginning of the end of apartheid?

• Adaptation of the end of apartheid

• Decreasing economic viability

• White population declining

• Loss of international support - growth of anti-apartheid movement.

What are legacies of apartheid?

1. Economic disparities

2. Racial and Ethnic divisions

3. Authoritarian state structures and practices

Political System

• New system is a dominant-party state where elections are free and fair, but only one party can realistically win.

1) Nelson Mandela (April 1994 - June 1999)

2) Thabo Mbeki (June 1999 - September 2008)

3) Kgaleme Mothlanthe (September 2008 - May 2009)

4) Jacob Zuma (May 2009 - February 2018)

5) Nelson Mandela (February 2018 -  present)

Declining ANC Support

Political Reform

• Negotiated transition allows past regime a say in new regime - contrast to revolutionary change that involves sharp break (China) or more gradual evolutionary change (UK)

• Institutional continuities are among legacies of authoritarian rule.

• How can institutions that have been used to oppress and exclude the population be transformed to support democracy?

• Reform of institutions is a major focus in transitions, often embodied in new constitutions.

• But merely changing the constitution doesn’t change practices. Democratic principles must be institutionalized.

• Idea of rule of law is closely related to constitutionalism - the principle that no one is above the law and that the government functions according to the law.

Constitutional and Political Reform in South Africa (3/26/24)

South African Political Reform

• Negotiations about transition began with Mandela’s release in February 1990.

• Interim Constitution of 1993 - includes a number of provisions that had to be retained after transition, result of negotiated transition.

• Transition to majority rule with elections in April 1994.

• Final Constitution of 1996.

Political Reforms in the Constitution

• Negotiated transition imposes limits.

• Transitional government 1994-96 includes National Party with de Klerk as VP

• New institutions - provinces, upper house, supreme court

• New constitution 1996 includes extensive bill of rights

Organization of Political System

• Bicameral parliament

→ National Assembly chose through party list proportional representation (PR) system.

→ National Council of Provinces - relatively weak body.

• ANC has heavily dominated the political process, creating a dominant party system, where opposition parties are allowed but only one party has a realistic chance of winning. Alternation, change of control from one party to another, has never yet happened.

• Quasi-parliamentary system:

→ The President is elected by parliament from among its members. No direct popular presidential vote.

→ The President has significant power and elections are held every 5 years with no possibility of snap elections.

• Members of cabinet are selected from MPs

→ Currently 32 ministers in cabinet, including president and deputy president (compared to 33 in UK and 21 in US currently)

• Quasi-federal system:

→ 9 provinces created out of previous 4

→ Yet power lies ultimately with the center and there has been increasing centralization of power.

• Independent Judiciary

→ Constitutional Court: adjudicates constitutional matters - protects principle of constitutional supremacy - has power of judicial review

→ Supreme Court is highest court of appeal

Basic Principles of Regime

• Heal the divisions of the past and establish a society based on democratic values, social justice and fundamental human rights;

• Lay the foundations for a democratic and open society in which government is based on the will of the people and every citizen is equally protected by law;

• Improve the quality of life of all citizens and free the potential of each person;

• Build a united and democratic South Africa able to take its rightful place as a sovereign state in the family of nations.

A New Ideology: Non-racialism

• What is it?

→ Philosophy that seeks liberation and empowerment of all racial groups and promotes racial reconciliation

→ Listed in Chapter 1 of constitution

• What’s its impact?

→ Prevents seeking revenge on whites

→ Encourages dialogue and steps to create equality.

Religion and Politics (3/28/24)

Post-Apartheid South Africa

• Positive changes?

→ Peaceful reckoning with the past.

→ Expanded access to housing, electricity, running water, education, healthcare.

→ Successful democratic elections

→ Expansion of human rights

→ Growth of black middle class

→ Decline in violent crime rate.

→ Leadership within Africa.

• What challenges does the country face?

→ Economic inequality

→ Slow economic growth

→ Racial segregation

→ High crime/violent crime

→ Frustration with political system (Especially with younger audience)

→ Youth disenfranchisement

→ Corruption

→ Xenophobic violence

Background on Religion and Politics

Religions and Politics: Religion as social identity

• Examples of conflict where religion is a factor…

1. Tibetan Buddhists

2. Chinese Uygur

3. Catholic and Protestants in Northern Ireland

4. Muslims in UK

5. Hindus,m Muslims, and Sikhs in India

6. Croats/Bosniaks/Serbs

7. Shia and Sunni in Iraq

8. Muslim-Christian conflict in Sudan

9. Boko Haram in Nigeria

10. Rohingya minority in Myanmar

• The conflicts are rarely about religion, but religion acts as a group identifier.

Religions and Politics: Religion as social actor

• Religious institutions are often the largest groups outside the state. They are often the largest actors in civil society and also sponsor other groups.

• Religious institutions are key part of civil society

• By civil society we mean…

→ “ A realm of free activity and association that is not organized by the state… a realm of intermediate associations that stand between the individual and the state” (Dictionary of the Social Sciences).

• No predetermined relationship with state - can be a close ally or strong critic or neutral.

Religions and Politics in China

• Imperial China was religiously diverse, but the emperor treated it as quasi-divine.

• CCP is officially atheist and religion suppressed under mao.

• Religion is tolerated more post-Mao but heavily regulated.

• Intensifying oppression of religious minorities - Falun Gong, Tibetan Buddhists, Uygur Muslims.

Religions and Politics in UK

• Under Henry VIII, break with Rome to create state church

• Two centuries of conflict between Catholics and Anglicans and dissenting Protestants

• Church integrated into state and rarely challenges state

• Conflict in Northern Ireland remnant of earlier divides

• Anti-Muslim sentiments based in part on idea of Britain as Protestants.

Religious Demographics in South Africa.

Religion and Apartheid

• Afrikaner nationalism used religious imagery: Great Trek likened to the wanderings of Israel in the desert, South Africa a “land of milk and honey,” the Afrikaners a new “Chosen People”

• The Dutch Reformed Church (NGK) provided moral support to nationalist movement.

Religion and the Anti-Apartheid Movement

• Ultimately, churches emerged as opponents of apartheid.

• Beyers Naude and Allan Boesak of Reformed Church, Desmond Tutu of Anglican Church, Desmond Tutu of Anglican Church

• World COuncil of Churches and World Communion of Reformed Churches played a major role internationally in organizing opposition to apartheid.

Religion and Politics since Apartheid

• What has Kuperus said about religion and politics since 1994?

→ Churches’ role-less clear, lacking sharp difference with the state.

→ South African Council of Churches and Catholic Bishops Conference still seek to engage the state, particularly advocating for marginalized, but not highly influential.

→ Mainline churches undermined by growth of Charismatic and Fundamentalist churches.

→ African Initiated Churches generally apolitical

→ Little religiously-based identity conflict.

Overview on Religion and Politics

• When is religion a source of conflict?

→ Religion can be an important aspect of identity.

→ Religion can give moral support to violent conflict and oppression.

→ Religion is often invoked by political leaders, even without support of religious officials.

• When is religion a source of resistance and empowerment?

→ Religion is often important to groups seeking to preserve their identities

→ Religion can empower people to demand their rights and challenge governments.

→ Religious organizations can challenge political authorities.

Background on Religion and Politics

Approaches to Transitional Justice

The Truth and Reconciliation Commission

• TRC emerged out of transition negotiations as compromise between ANC and NP

• Promotion of National Reconciliation Act of 1995.

• Charged to deal with crimes on all sides from 1960-1994.

• Anglican Archbishop Desmond Tutu named chair, Methodist leader Alex Boraine vice-chair, commissioners from diverse backgrounds.

Organization of the TRC

• Three Committees:

1. Amnesty Committee - granted 849 amnesties out of over 7,000 applications

2. Human Rights Violations Committee - core of TRC work - Received some 30,000 testimonies, held hearings throughout the country, attempted balanced investigations, and issued a massive final report.

3. Reparation and Rehabilitation Committee - least successful part because of limited funds.

Political History of Chile (4/9/24)

Overview of Chile

• History of democracy with dramatic authoritarian interruption 1973-1989

• Small country of 17.6 m.

• Highly urban and educated, relatively prosperous

• Demographically and culturally homogeneous, but politically deeply divided.

• Three sections of political culture.

Political History

• Small indigenous population before colonial conquest

• Spanish conquest 1536-1550.

• Limited natural resources

• Slow population growth

• 5,000 by 1600

• 500,000 by 1810

Conservative/Rightist Political Culture

• Spain brough hierarchical, class divided culture

• Dominated by large landholders

• Represents rural interests

• Conservative Catholicism shaped by inquisition

• Independence driven not by revolutionary fervor but desire for self-rule by criollos and resistance to Napoleon

• Elites claim self-rule 1810, Bernardo O’Higgins becomes dictator

• O’Higgins leads resistance to Spanish attempt to reassert control

• O'Higgins was driven out in 1923.

• After a period of conflict (1823-1833), the first constitution was adopted.

• Only landholders were allowed to vote.

• Systems with strong president

• President Manuel Bulnes (1841-1851) established the principle of civilian rule.

Liberalist/Moderate Political Culture

• Liberalism influenced by philosophers (John Locke, Adam Smith, Montesquieu, Rousseau, JS Mill)

• Principles of limited government, pro-business, urban

• Not liberalism as we think of it today, closer to modern libertarianism

• Supported expansion of electorate, freedom of religion

• Initially two main parties - Liberal and Radical

• Liberal Republic (1861-1891)

Comparing Political Tendencies

Socialist/Leftist Political Culture

• After period of conflict (1823-1833), first constitution adopted

• Only landholders were allowed to vote.Urbanization expands and labor unions gain membership

• Socialist and Marxist Parties are founded

• Politically moderate rather than revolutionary

• Repression of labor under Carlos Ibanez (1927-1932) actually increases support

• Radical-Socialist-Marxist coalition (1938-1947)

Comparing Political Tendencies

Christian Democratic Party

• In 1930s, progressive Catholic split with Conservative Party

• 1957 reorganizes as Christian Democratic Party and becomes major force in moderate/centrist politics

• Party supports social programs, but is less radical than Socialist and Marxist.

Breakdown of Democracy

1. Jorge Alessandri - Conservative and Liberal - (1958-1964)

2. Eduardo Fredi - Christian Democrat - (1964-1970)

3. Salvador Allende - Socialist and Communist - (1970-1973)

Salvador Allende - 1970

• Wins 1970 Presidential Election

• Socialist Party

• Elected with plurality 36.2%

→ Conservatives got 34.9%

→ Christian Democrats got 27.8%

Decline of Democracy

• Decline of democracy caused by…

→ Breakdown of coalition politics

→ Conservative frustration with democracy

→ Economic decline

→ Politicization of the military

→ Imitation effect

→ Outside intervention

September 11, 1973

• Military coup overthrows Allende government

• Military bombs La Moneda (presidential palace)

• Allende commits suicide or is killed.

Pinochet’s Rule (1973-1990)

• Pinochet takes power in September 11, 19373, coup as triumvirate leader

• Brutal suppression of Allende supporters to establish power

• Promise of stability and economic growth - brought in Chicago Boys for economic policy advice

Initial Support for Junta

• Military viewed as professional, above politics, merely serving the interests of the country.

• Claimed coup was not against democracy but to protect it, rule was to be temporary.

• Promised to bring calm back to the country, reestablish order.

• Promised to revitalize the economy.

• International support.

Brutality of the Regime

• Violence was needed to establish Pinochet’s authority

• 3,216 are officially recognized as missing or murdered.

• 38,254 people are recognized as survivors of political imprisonment and/or torture.

• Use of extensive surveillance made people afraid to express opposition or organize.

• What legacies does the experience of violence and authoritarianism leave?

Explaining Pinochet’s Longevity Despite Democratic Traditions

• Solid support from ⅓ of the population.

• Promises of reform, growth, etc.

• Extensive use of repression and surveillance to intimidate potential opponents.

• Failure of the international community to oppose Pinochet.

What Led to Pinochet’s Downfall?

• Chile’s Democratic traditions.

• Opposition from the Catholic Church.

• Growth of poverty

• Corruption.

Political History of Chile II (4/11/24)

September 11, 1973

• In the face of a growing sense of democracy’s breakdown, expanding chaos, and economic decline, the military stages a coup.

• Junta lead by army head, Augusto Pinochet, takes power’

• Brutal repression of opposition gains compliance.

• Radical free market economic policies implemented.

• Brutality of Pinochet Rule…

→ Violent repression in the first years followed by surveillance by DINA (Dirección de Inteligencia Nacional)

→ Notorious for its brutal methods, officially disbanded in 1977, but actually renamed by CNI (Central Nacional de Informaciones).

Church and State

• Catholic Church in Chile reflects tripartite division of society

• As conservative, Pinochet embraced traditional Catholic values but the Church itself had changed.

• Vatican II (1962-1965) called on the church to become more relevant.

• 1968 Medellin Conference lays groundwork for Liberation Theology.

• After 1973, the Church became a haven for opposition.

• Vicariate of Solidarity documents human rights abuses Church supports NO in plebiscite.

Transition to Democracy

1. No wins in plebiscite (1988)

2. Constitutional reforms to allow transition (1988)

3. December elections, Left-Center bloc wins (1989)

4. Patricio Aylwin becomes president (March 1990)

Why does Chile seem in crisis three decades later?

Legacies of Pinochet Regime?

• Institutional features allowed military to retain considerable power.

→ Binomial voting system guarantees right disproportionate representation

→ Unelected Senate seats for the military.

• People feared another military coup so were reluctant to push for radical change.

• Violence itself left legacies - families broken, individuals damaged

• People feared the possibility of the country falling apart again into chaos as in Allende years.

Political System after Transition

• Constitution remained in place (1980)

• Revision created (1989)

• Senators for life, allowed president to serve only one term, required run off elections

• 60 binomial constituencies for Chamber of Deputies

• 38 Senate districts +9 for former presidents, military, and appointed

Chile’s Multi-Party System 1990-2017

The Binomial Voting System

• Unique electoral system designed by outgoing Pinochet Regime

• Each constituency had 2 seats

• Parties or coalitions present a list of two candidates 

• Voters choose one candidate on one list

• The first seat goes to the list with the most votes and the specific candidate on that list with the most personal votes.

Constitutional Reforms

• 1980 constitution is still in place, with 1989 changes put in place before transition

• 2005 reform eliminated non-appointed senate seats including for military and ex-presidents

• 2015 Binomial system eliminated, shift to multi-member constituencies. Expand Chamber of Deputies from 120 to 155.

• 2017 elections first under new system sees multiplication of parties

• 2017 Bachelet sought to push through guarantees of economic rights - encouraging popular engagement and hoping to make system more relevant to masses,

• 2020 Referendum for new constitution

• 2021 Constitutional commissioners elected.

Accountability Efforts

• 1990: National Commission for Truth and Reconciliation

• 1991: Rettig Report lists 3,197 dead or disappeared

• 1992: National Corporation for Reparation and Reconciliation

• 1993: Conviction of DINA head Manuel Contreras

• Beginning of human rights cases brought by individuals 

• 1998: First charges against Pinochet in Chile – Guzmán investigation begins – Pinochet arrested in London

• 2000: Pinochet returned to Chile but charges dropped due to ill health

• 2004 - 2005: Valech Report on unjust arrests and torture

Presidents Since Pinochet 

• C: Concertación/A: Alianza

• 1990-1994: Patricio Aylwin, Christian Democrat (C) 

• 1994-2000: Eduardo Frei, Christian Democrat (C)

• 2000-2006: Ricardo Lagos, Party for Democracy (C) 

• 2006-2010: MIchelle Bachelet, Socialist (C) 

• 2010-2014: Sebastian Pinera, RN (A)

• 2014-2018: Michelle Bachelet, Socialist (C) 

• 2018-2022: Sebastian Pinera, RN (A) 

Patricio Aylwin: 1990-1994

• Christian Democratic Party, Concertacion Candidate

• First Round…

1. Patricio Aylwin (Christian Democrat / Concertación) - 55.2%

2. Hernan Buchi (Democrat Independent Union / Democracy and Progress) - 29.4%

• Policies…

→ Rettig Commision: TRC documents over 2,000 killed or disappeared

→ Tax Reform allows investment in poor communities, including building over 100,000 new homes.

Eduardo Frei: 1994-2000

• Christian Democratic Party, Concertacion Candidate

• First Round…

1. Patricio Aylwin (Christian Democrat / Concertación) - 58%

2. Hernan Buchi (Democrat Independent Union / Alliance for Progress) - 24.4%

• Policies…

→ Opens negotiations on free trade

→ Confronted with aftermath of Pinochet arrest

Richard Lagos: 2000-2006

• Party for Democracy, Concertacion Candidate

• Second Round…

1. Patricio Aylwin (Christian Democrat / Concertación) - 51.3%

2. Joaquin Lavin (Democrat Independent Union / Alliance for Chile) - 48.7%

• Policies…

→ Valech Commission: TRC documents political arrests and tortures

→ 2005 constitutional reforms

→ 2003 US-Chile Free Trade Agreement

Michelle Bachelet: 2006-2010, 2014-2018

• Socialist Party, Concertacion Candidate

• Second Round (2005-2006)…

1. Michelle Bachelet (Socialist Party / Concertación) - 53.5%

2. Sebastián Pinera (Renovacion Nacional / Alliance) - 46.5%

• Second Round (2013)…

3. Michelle Bachelet (Socialist Party / Nueva Mayoria) - 62.2%

4. Evelyn Matthei (UDI / Alliance) - 37.8%

• Policies…

→ Legalizes same sex civil unions, legalizes abortion

→ 2005 Constitutional reforms

→ Social reforms and educational reforms in response to 2006 protests

→ 2015 shift to proportional representation

Sebastian Pinera: 2010-2014, 2018-2022

• Renovacion Nacional (National Renewal Party) Center - Right Candidate

• Second Round (2009-2010)…

1. Eduardo Frei (Christian Democrat / Concertación) - 48.4%

2. Sebastián Pinera (Renovacion Nacional / Alliance) - 51.6%

• Second Round (2018)…

3. Michelle Bachelet (Socialist Party / Nueva Mayoria) - 62.2%

4. Evelyn Matthei (UDI / Alliance) - 37.8%

• Policies…

→ Pro-business

Gabriel Boric: 2022-Present

• Convergencia Social - Apruebo Dignidad, Leftist Coalition

• Policies…

→ Former leader of student strikes, campaign on progressive change

→ Broader social net

→ Higher taxes on rich

→ Return to public pension system

→ Climate justice

Growing Protests

• Protests in 2006 over quality of education, 2011-2013 over educational system, 2016 over pension program

• October 19, 2019: Massive protests over transit fare hikes

• Pinero agrees to referendum on new constitution

• October 25, 2020: Proposal for constitutional convention wins overwhelmingly

• Will the new constitution solve Chile’s political challenges?

Chilean Winter

• Protests 2011-2013 to make public education more availabl- e

• Only 45% of high school graduates were from public schools.

• No new public universities have been founded since 1990.

2019 Protests

• Began in October over high subway fares

• Expanded to vandalizing subway stations

• Pinera called army out to restore order

• October 25: March of over 1 million.

• October 28: Cabinet reshuffle

• November 15 parties agree to 2020 plebiscite over whether to write new constitution

• In October 2020 vote, 71% approved plan for new constitution

Two Failed Constitutional Proposals

• 2020 plebiscite also elected members of Constitutional COnvention.

• 2021 Constitutional Convention begins deliberating

• April 4, 2022: 62% of voters reject constitution draft regarded as too leftist

• December 2022: New Process for constitution drafting launched, combining Constitutional Council with Panel of Experts

• December 17, 2023: 56% of voters reject second constitution draft regarded as too conservative and market friendly.

Why is there still so much discontent, 30 years after Pinochet’s fall?

• Steady economic growth, but high inequality

• Constraints to exercise of democracy

• Legacies of brutality, not fully confronted.

• “With so many Latin transitions beginning from the starting point of military rule, their dominant motif is negotiation and institutional mediation between power-holders and opposition. … The outcome, not surprisingly, is often incomplete democracy, a regime basically democratic but riddled with inherited authoritarian enclaves …”

Authoritarian Legacies (4/23/24)

O’Neil, Field, and Share on Political Violence

• “Violence outside of state control that is politically violated.”

→ Most scholars would include state-sponsored violence as well.

→ Because of this narrow definition, they include terrorism and revolution but not ethnic violence and genocide.

Political Violence

• What causes political violence.

→ Leaders and elites seek to force change…

1. Institutional

2. Ideational

3. Individual

→ Is political violence less likely in democratic regimes?

→ How can we avoid political violence?

→ What legacies does it leave and how can they be overcome.

Legacies of Pinochet Regime

• Institutionally, military retained considerable power - unelected Senate seats, National Security Council - Santos refers to “restricted democratic game”

• People feared another military coup and a new wave of repression.

• Violence itself left legacies - families broken, individuals damaged

• People feared the possibility of the country falling apart again into chaos as in Allende years.

• People feel detached from political system, few vote, few engage in other ways – protest has seemed more effective way to effect change

• Governments have felt constrained and remained moderate

• Economic policies created lasting inequality

Responses to Authoritarian legacies

• 1991: Rettig Commission documents deaths and disappearances

• 1995: DINA head Contreras arrested

• 1998: Pinochet charged in Spain, arrested in UK

• 2000: Pinochet returns to Chile but is charged

• 2004: Valech Commission documents political detentions

• 2005: Constitutional reform eliminated non-appointed senate seats, including for military and ex-presidents

• 2011: Valech Commission II adds 10,000 victims’ names

• 2015: Binomial system eliminated, shift to multi-member constituencies.

• “ At least two factors help to explain the chasm between society and politics. 

1. The decision that center-left political parties made early in the transition to demobilize civil society for the sake of stability. 

2. Difficulty of generating a truly representative political system in a context of acute socio economic inequality.”

• “The Concertaacion opted ealy after taking office to demobilize the social forces that had been protesting the dictatorship since 1983. Centrist and leftist politicians emphasized elite-level dealmaking and let grassroots ties lapse.”

Chilean Constitutional Convention

• “We start the process that allows us to have a new constitution since the current constitution had its origins in dictatorship and does not reflect the needs of our times.” (President Bachelet, October 2015).

• “In writing a new fundamental law for the Republic of Chile, the Convention has an opportunity to deepen and rejuvenate a democracy which Chileans had come to feel increasingly detached from.” (Heiss)

Reconsidering Definitions of Democracy

• What does it take for a state to be truly democratic

• What would Weberian “ideal type” of democracy consist of?

→ But ultimately we need democratic political culture as well.

1. Strong constitution and rule of law.

2. Government reflects popular will

3. Population believes in state institutions

4. Strong protections of minority and human rights

5. Free and fair elections

6. High levels of participation

7. Free exchange of ideas (Free speech, active press)

8. Strong, independent civil society and independent judiciary

9. Military and police subject to civilian control

10.  Broad inclusion of diverse social groups

11.  Methods for addressing inequality

Memory in the Social Sciences

• Maurice Halbwachs: “On Collective Memory” (1925)

→ Ideas about collective memory shape transitional justice

• Pierra Nora: “Rethinking France - Realms of Memory” (1984-1992)

→ Memorialization considered important part ⇒ Museums of Negative Memory

Violent Legacies of Pinochet Regime

• Large numbers of people were arrested, tortured, executed, or “disappeared” by military, national police and DINA.

• Assassination in Washington DC of Orlando Letelier leads to dismantling of DINA, but practices continue (1976)

• Amnesty Law (1978)

Civil Society Support for Accountability

• ¿Dónde están?

• Vicariate of Solidarity (Vicaria) within the Catholic Church

• Non Campaign for 1988 plebiscite

• Courts largely controlled by the regime but available for some purposes.

First Steps Toward Accountability

1. National Commission for Truth and Reconciliation (1990)

2. Rettig Report lists 3,197 dead or disappeared (1991)

3. National Corporation for Reparation and Reconciliation (1992)

4. Conviction of DINA head Manuel Contreras

• Beginnings of human rights cases brought by individuals

Pinochet Case

1. First charges against Pinochet in Chile - Guzman investigation begins (January 1998)

2. Pinochet arrested in London (October 1998)

3. Pinochet returned to Chile (2000)

4. Pinochet charges dropped due to ill health (2001)

Aftermath of Pinochet Case

1. Mesa de Dialogo (1999-2000)

2. National Commission on Imprisonment and Torture releases Valech Report detailing 38,254 imprisonments (2004)

3. Museum of Memory and Human Rights (2010)

4. Updated Valech Commission Report (2010)

• Collins argues that impetus for trials has come from society, not the state.

Museum of Memory and Human Rights

• Is referred to as “museum of negative memory” or “museum of conscience”

• “Visitors can see the complex entwining of violence and caring, past and present, the person and the society, and exclusion and inclusion.”

Memory and Justice in Post-Pinochet Chile (4/23/24)

Midterm Exam Prep

• Midterm on Monday (5/6/24)

→ One essay from choice of two or three

• Essays are based on materials from throughout semester, though questions more drawn from second half

→ Six short answers from choice of 11-12

→ Short answers just on material since midterm…

• Articles and lectures on South Africa and Chile

→ Essay questions will focus on the major questions we’ve covered…

• Historical, social and economic context

• Paths to democratization

• Overcoming legacies of violence

• Balancing freedom and equality

• Relationship between economics and politics

• Understanding political frustration/malaise.

Transitional Justice in Chile

• Collins on trials…

→ “As of August 2009, 554 former regime agents were under formal investigation for human rights crimes committed between 1973 and 1990. A further 276 had already been sentenced, 54 of them to definitive custodial sentences”

→ “Present phase of prosecutions was not sparked by any renewed state determination to act against past impunity. Instead, as in Argentina, justice developments in Chile since 1998 have been instigated and driven by minority civil actors. State responses in Chile generally have oscillated between indifference and active dissuasion.”

• Opotow on Museum of Memory

→ “As the national successor to the collective work of human rights groups and victims’ families, coworkers, and neighbors and the 200 memorials they created, - the museum's remit is memory and human rights: remembering victims and validating their dignity…”

→ “Among the most psychological issues, represented vividly, is the relationship between justice and individual and societal well-being. In a shrinking scope of justice, well-being is precarious; in an enlarging scope of justice, there is increasing freedom and hope. In both, as aptly displayed in the exhibition, social support is a crucial psychological resource.”

Assessing Transitional Justice in Chile

• Role of civil society has been key.

• Interaction between courts, parliament, and public made change possible?

• What have prosecutions accomplished?

• What have memorials like the museum accomplished?

• What problems remain?

Religion and Politics in Chile

• Historically Catholic Church was very conservative, independent, so could challenge state, but support hierarchical society

• After independence, the Catholic Church was the only legal faith..

→ “The Roman Catholic Apostolic religion is the sole and exclusive faith of the State of Chile. Its protection, conservation, purity, and inviolability will be one of the duties of the chiefs of society who will never permit another public cult or doctrine contrary to that of Jesus Christ.”

• From the 1950s, divisions emerged in the church reflecting national divisions…

→ Some priests were still conservative

→ Some influenced by Vatican II to be more progressive (support Christian Democrats)

• The Church provided support for opposition to Pinochet. Priests were on front lines dealing with violence. Much of opposition organizing took place in churches.

→ Church key pushing “No” vote in 1988 plebiscite.

→ Since Pinochet, the church has been less politically engaged.

→ Major growth in secularism and Protestantism

Sex, Gender, and Politics (4/23/24)

Gender and Politics Post-transition

• Contrast between South Africa and Chile

→ Oppression included restrictions on women in both countries

→ Both apartheid regime and Pinochet regime promoted conservative cultural values that constrained women.

→ Women involved in liberation struggles in both countries.

• Waylen: “Women’s movements may be necessary but they are not a sufficient condition for achieving higher levels of descriptive and substantive representation”

Political Economy

• The study of how politics and economics are related.

• Analysis of political-economic systems, economic policies, economic aspects of government, and economic measures of political systems

Political Economic Systems

• Mercantilism: Heavy state involvement in economic activity

• Liberalism: Reaction against mercantilism, argument for limited government role in economy.

Communism

• Draws most on writings of Karl Marx (1818-1883)

• In some ways, reaction to liberalism

• Argued about injustice of capitalism and need for state ownership of means of production

• Communist states in the 20th century drew only partially on his writing but influenced more by Lenin, Stalin, Mao, and other leaders with emphasis on state ownership and strong state rule.

Social Democracy

• Incorporates ideas from both liberalism and communism

• Allows private ownership of capital but uses heavy taxation to provide social services

• Influenced by John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946) who argued for state intervention to prevent radical economic shifts. Keynesianism is demand in side economics where infusion of cash at the bottom is expected to drive demand and thus build the economy.

Neoliberalism

• Reaction to growth of social welfare state and government regulation

• Freidrich Hayek - adapted liberal economics to modern era - Road to Serfdom (1944)  warns of danger of government economic control allowing tyranny

• Milton Friedman - leader of “Chicago School”

• Free to Choose (1980)

• Role of government should be limited to providing defense and controlling money supply

• Known as monetarism or supply side economics

• Libertarian approach arguing for minimal government and widespread deregulation

Political Economy in Chile (4/23/24)

Review of Major Political Economic Systems

1. Mercantilism - Heavy state involvement in economic activity

2. Liberalism - Free market with limited government role in economy

3. Communism  - Collective ownership of the means of production

4. Social Democracy - Allows private ownership of capital but uses heavy taxation to combat inequality and provide social services

5. Neoliberalism - Advocates cutting government spending and lowering taxes to spur the economy and using money supply to regulate economy.

Chilean Political Economy

• Chile long prosperous and democratic, often categorized separately from “Third World”

• Became important test case for neoliberal economic policies

• Christian Democrats under Frei in the 1960s moved toward social democracy - extensive social spending to fight poverty.

• Allende attempted to prove communism could be implemented democratically rather than through heavy authoritarian

• Under Pinochet, students of Friedman, the “Chicago Boys”, implemented neoliberalism

→ Privatization of state-owned enterprises

→ Reduction in state expenditures *cuts in social services, employment, etc.)

→ Opening up to direct foreign investment

→ Monetarist policies focused on money supply

→ Focused on exports with the idea that benefits of economic growth will trickle down.

• Mixed reviews - stopped hyper-inflation but only moderate economic growth, with growing inequality

Chilean Political Economy Since Pinochet

• Post-Pinochet most neoliberal policies retained - constraints of “Washington consensus” - the belief in neoliberalism promoted by the Washington-based IMF and World Bank

• Solid economic growth, but poverty declined at a slower rate.

• Continuing opening of markets - Chile joined NAFTA in 2003 under President Lagos from the Socialist Party

Economics and Democracy in Chile Today

• Pribble: “Upon returning to office for a second term, Bachelet reformed the tax code and secured passage of a sweeping education reform in 2015. The so-called gratuity law combined increased state funding with new regulations on tuition to provide free university access for 120,000-130,000 students in 2016; Bachelet has stated that she expects to expand coverage to all students by 2020. The education reform is funded through general revenue, boosted by the 2014 tax reform, which increased corporate taxes.”

Political Economy

• How do politics and economics relate?

• How much can economic results be attributed to politics?

• How much can public opinion about politics be tied to economic conditions?

• Where is economic policy going today? Is the Washington consensus over?

• How do our four countries compare on economics? How much do they have in common/difference?