Complete Exam 1 Notes / Flashcards

The Promise of Enlightenment, 1750-1789

What does “Western Civilization” mean?

• When courses like these were developed, they were created keeping in mind the fact that many people have an idea of what the “West” is

  • Specifically anywhere that is not Communist/authoritarian

• “Civilization”

  • Places that many Global North countries understand as more “civilized” or “First World countries”

• This class will be all over the map exploring what this concept really means, and will probably challenge preconceived notions of what “Western Civilization” is

The Enlightenment

Origins, 1680-1715

Influence of the Scientific Revolution

• Loosely knit group of writers and scholars who believed humans could apply critical, reasoning spirit to all problems

  • *The humans that these individuals are talking about are White learned men

• Stems from growth in science - application of scientific questioning to broader society

• Sir Isaac Newton

  • Natural philosopher concerned with questions of metaphysics and physics

  • Tries to show that physical universe follows rational principles to prove the existence of God

  • Man of privilege

• John Locke

  • Posits a social contract between rulers and ruled

  • 1690 - Two Treatises of Government

    • Government’s only purpose is to protect life, liberty, and property

    • Ultimate authority rests with will of the majority (male property owners)

  • 1690 - Essay Concerning Human Understanding

    • The mine is a tabula rasa

    • All knowledge comes from sensory input

    • Suggests all men are created equal

      • Radical argument for the time of White property-owning men

First Conflicts, 1715-1747

Questioning of Church and State Institutions

• Pierre Bayle questions “divine right of kings” and calls for religious toleration in France after Louis SIV revokes the Edict of Nantes (1685)

  • Edict of Nantes had said that religious tolerance was to be created because of the importance of Protestant merchants

• 1721 - Montesquieu’s Persian Letters questions “enlightened despotism” of Louis WIV through characters of Rica and Usbek

• 1734 - Voltaire’s (François Marie Arouet) Philosophical Letters praises British constitutional monarchy and religious toleration

• 1738 - “Voltaire’s” Elements of the Philosophy of Newton translated into French (co-authored by Madame du Châtelet) glorify reason and demean “God”

  • *Evidence now suggests that Madame du Châtelet did the translation English into French, not Voltaire

Decisive Period, 1748-1770s

Individual and Collective Action

• Movement broadens to include middling and upper class men and women who call for social changes & gather in salons

  • Want to participate in the Atlantic Trade

  • Development of lots of arts and places where people want to flaunt their wealth, even if they don’t have much

    • Go to the theater

    • Wear expensive fabrics

    • Smoke cigars

    • Etc.

  • Women are also important

    • Now have the ability to stay home and care for the home as well as decorating themselves

    • Women having luxury goods indicated that the man of the house was of higher status

    • Salons are parties hosted by women

      • Brings people together for social reasons but have real political consequences

      • “It’s just a party” but there was a lot more going on than people thought

  • Middling classes have wealth but don’t necessarily have land

• Growth of philosophes who espouse:

  • Intellectual freedom

  • 1751-1772 Diderot’s Encyclopedia (17 volumes)

  • Political freedom

  • Freedom of the press

  • Freedom of religion

  • Fear of the “mob”

    • Term has historical context and means something different depending on who’s in charge of doing the defining

• 1761 - The New Heloise

  • Women always subordinate to men

• 1762 - Rousseau’s Social Contract

  • Emphasizes education & virtue of citizens

  • Does NOT believe in direct democracy

  • “Social compact” among individuals rather than with ruler

  • Individuals (property-owning men) are forced to follow the “general will” (not majority opinion) which guides the government

    • The bedrock of liberalism

    • Some form of representative gov’t and capitalism

  • *Rousseau refuses to marry any of the women he has children with and they end up in orphanages

The Cataclysm of Revolution, 1789-1799

The Enlightenment

General Diffusion, 1770s-1780s

• The limits of reason:

  • Roots of romanticism and religious revival

    • New artistic movement — emphasizes individual genius, emotion, and nature

      • Grounded in natural, the intangible, being in touch with your sense of wonder in the universe

      • Gender norms and roles are heavily influenced by this time

        • Men can be geniuses in the realm of artistic expression

    • Johann Wolfgang von Goethe explores limitations of reason in his novel The Sorrow of Young Werther

    • Religious revivals underscored limits of reason

    • British colonies experience “Great Awakening” - John Wesley founds Methodism (intensely personal faith, hard work, thrift, and abstinence)

Society and Culture in an Age of Enlightenment

• The middle class and the making of a new elite

  • Enlightenment offers middle class (bourgeoisie) route to self-improvement

    • Bourgeois is the adjective of bourgeoisie

  • Middle class occupied middle position on the social ladder, lived in cities and worked skilled jobs

  • Urban middle class grows steadily in western Europe

  • Enlightenment ideas disseminated through learned societies, publications, Masonic Lodges

• Life on the margins

  • Economic difficulties for day laborers and peasants

  • Many popular class people still could not read, enslaved people forbidden to read and write

  • Out-of-wedlock birth among urban popular classes soar

  • Parents take new views of their children leading to a growing market for toys and books for children

    • Mothers believe they need to be educated not for the sake of themselves but for the sake of their sons

    • Rise in use of wet nurses

State Power in an Era of Reform

War and Diplomacy: The Seven Years’ War

• Wars fought by large professional armies

  • “Professional” on a spectrum:

    • Military strategy was not seeking an all out conflict because war is so expensive and taxing, so there was many smaller conflicts dealing with invasions and alliances in the broader European wars

      • Conflicts in the British colonies inspire European conflicts as well

• Military strategy becomes more cautious but wars continue to break out

• Reversal of alliances lays foundation for the Seven Years’ War

• War begins when Prussia invades Austria’s ally Saxony

• Withdrawal of Russia from the war allows Prussia to emerge as great power

• Much of the conflicts are based on the idea that people of similar ethnicities, languages, religions, etc. should all be under the same political unit

• Holy Roman Empire

  • Broad general power in many nation-states and areas, all with their own leadership that answers to the Holy Roman Emperor

State-Sponsored Reform

• Aftermath of the Seven Years’ War

  • Austrian and Prussian monarchs insist on greater attention to merit and professionalism in the government

    • Often through the military

  • Prussian (Frederick II), Austrian (Joseph II), and Russian (Catherine the Great) leaders attempt to reform justice systems

  • Rulers used criticism of organized religion to gain greater control over church affairs

Rebellions Against State Power

• Food riots

  • Citizens often riot when they feel abandoned or threatened by the government

  • Food supply becomes focus of conflict due to government’s desire to deregulate grain trade

  • Farmers, agricultural workers, and city wage workers riot to enforce sale of grain or flour at a “just” price

  • Turbulent riot known as the 1775 Flour War in France is prompted by a price increase in grain

• Peasant uprisings

  • Frustrations with serfdom provoke Pugachev rebellion in Russia

  • Emelian Pugachev claimed he would save the people from oppression

    • Claims he is the long lost Czar (Peter III) that was killed by Catherine the Great

  • Government executes Pugachev after rebels attack and kill numerous noble families

• Popular uprisings

  • Enslaved people in the colonies begin their own resistances (sabotage, poisonings, maroon communities such as Trewlaney Town, Jamaica)

    • Trewlaney Town lasted about 50 years, authorities were unable to disperse it since it was mostly former militia men and free slaves

      • Allowed to exist as long as it did not actively recruit enslaved individuals

  • In British North America, subjects respond to new taxes - teat, ‘stamped paper’, etc. - which culminates in events such as the Boston Tea Party

The Revolutionary Wave, 1787-1789

Origins of the French Revolution

• French Revolution began with a fiscal crisis when Louis XVI attempts to overhaul the inefficient tax system

  • Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette are repeatedly slandered by political pornography that questions the King’s fitness to lead and paints Marie Antoinette as sexually deviant

• The King is forced to call a meeting of the Estates General

  • French citizens elect representatives to the three estates that made up the Estates General, each group having different grievances with the King

    • Third Estate breaks away from the meeting, declares itself the National Assembly

    • Clergy (First Estate) joins them and the National Assembly swears not to disband until they create a constitution (Tennis Court Oath)

      • Not even close to what they were called to do

    • The King fires finance minister Jacques Necker, populace begins to arm themselves so Parisian crowds storm the Bastille

      • Bastille is a prison where people were incarcerated for any crime for any amount of time

Napoleon and the Revolutionary Legacy, 1800-1830

At the end of the 16th century, France is in debt

From Monarchy to Republic, 1789 - 1793

The Revolution of Rights and Reason

• National Assembly confronts growing violence in the countryside when peasants attack their landlords in a movement dubbed the Great Fear

  • Includes the Flour War as well

• National Assembly abolishes seigneurial dues, special legal privileges, and serfdom

  • Mandated equality of opportunity in access to government positions

  • Enlightenment principles become law

• Assembly issues the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

  • “Men are born and remain free and equal in rights”

  • Freedom of religion, freedom of the press, equality of taxation, and equality before law

  • All-seeing Masonic eye at the top, lots of cultural reference points

  • Principle of national sovereignty

    • King derived authority from the nation instead of tradition/divine right

  • The document raises questions about inclusion of Black people, Jews, Protestants, and women

    • How could slavery be justified if all men were born free?

    • Women never received the right to vote at this time but Protestant and Jewish men did

  • Olympe de Gouges

    • Writes Declaration of the Rights of Woman of 1791

      • “Woman is born free and lives equal to man in her rights”

  • Constitution establishes constitutional monarchy, reserves voting rights to white men who had passes test of wealth

• Deputies attempts to reform the Catholic church by confiscating property, issuing the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (July 1790) and redrawing political boundaries in France

  • Voters elect their own parish priests and bishops

  • Impounded property (slaving ships and tenement properties) served as a guarantee for the new paper money (assignats)

    • Soon was subject to inflation because the gov’t printed so much money

  • Pope Pius VI in Rome condemned the constitution and the oath of loyalty that was required of all clergy

    • Half of French clergy refused to take oath

    • Permanently divided the Catholic population

      • Many supporters were lost because of the harsh response the gov’t had to clergy who refused the oath (exile, deportation, execution, etc.)

The End of Monarchy

• Louis XVI forced to endorse the constitution, new Legislative Assembly elected

• Louis declares war on Austria in 1792, hoping a war would overturn the Revolution

• Prussia allies with Austria, thousands of French aristocrats flee (émigres) and join the Austrian army

  • Including both of the king’s brothers and two-thirds of the army officer corps

    • Would be found guilty of treason and executed upon return

• The sans-culottes attack the residence of the king (Tuileries palace)

  • “Without short pants” meaning they wear long pants and are working-class

    • Butchers, bakers, and candlestick makers

• When Prussians approached Paris, mobs stormed prisons to seek out traitors

  • 1,100 inmates killed, including innocents

    • Princess of Lamballe was killed and her mutilated body displayed beneath the windows where the royal family was kept

• Legislative Assembly agrees to new elections, become the National Convention which abolishes the monarchy and declares France a republic

  • National Convention name is representative that this is a break with the past

• Deputies write a new constitution debate the fate of the former king, execute “Louis Capet” (Louis XVI) in January 1793

Terror and Resistance

Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety

• Maximilian Robespierre gains control of government after Convention agrees to establish the Committee of Public Safety

  • Robespierre wanted to create a “republic of virtue”

  • Government would “teach” (force) citizens to become virtuous republicans through a program of political reeducation

• Convention decides emergency measure needed, decree the beginning of the Terror which aims to eradicate dissent and eliminate internal and external enemies of the Revolution

  • Guillotine became the most terrifying instrument of government

  • Terror orders first universal draft of men

• King’s execution causes other European countries to join war against France

The Republic of Virtue, 1793-1794

• The Terror attempted a cultural Revolution

• Government uses writings, plays, festivals, and songs to educate the population in new revolutionary virtues

• Government also begins de-Christianization, closing churches and forcing clergy to forsake religious life

• Government offered an alternative Cult of the Supreme Being

  • Did not attract many followers, but showed the depth of the commitment to overturning the old order

• Government changes to the metric system and develops a new Revolutionary calendar

Resisting the Revolution

• Federalist revolts

  • Peasants from the countryside join noble leadership to attack towns where the Revolution was firmly established

  • Peasants fight to defend Catholicism, protest the draft, and challenge economic dominance in the towns

  • Thousands of republican soldiers and civilians killed in the fighting in royalist western France (Vendée)

The Fall of Robespierre and the End of the Terror

• Women express discontent - Society for Revolutionary Republican Women is disbanded by the Committee of Public Safety/Marie Antoinette is executed

  • From here on, sans-culottes and their political organizations came under the thumb of the Jacobin deputies in the National Convention

  • Marie Antoinette is put on trial and accused of horrific crimes, many of which she was innocent

    • “How dare you, I am a mother”

    • Shows how dangerous a strong woman was to the government

• Government beings suppressing pro-revolutionary groups

• Many different, diverse groups targeted & political repression worsened

• Hundreds of thousands of French people arrested and imprisoned, aristocrats and clergy executed along with ordinary working people

• Convention ends the Terror be arresting and executing Robespierre

• Convention orders new elections, creates new constitution (Thermidorian Reaction)

• New government releases suspects and engineers a truce

• All Jacobin Clubs closed and leading “terrorists” put to death, paramilitary bands attack those who had previously held power

Revolution on the March

Arms and Conquests

• French armies welcomed by many of the middle class as they moved into the Austrian Netherlands, semi-independent “Sister Republics” created as the army advanced

• French armies move into the Dutch Republic, creating the Batavian Republic

• Young general Napoleon Bonaparte crosses into northern Italy, conquers Venice and gives it to Austria in exchange for peace agreement

• French take over Papal States and renamed them the Roman Republic, forcing the pope to flee

Revolution in the Colonies

• Enslaved people in northern St. Domingue organize a revolt

• Legislative Assembly in Paris grants civil and political rights to free Black people

• Angered White merchants sign treaty declaring British sovereignty over St. Domingue, while Spain offers freedom to enslaved people who join Spanish armies

  • Spain used the idea that there was no revolution happening in their country so freedmen could trust that they will stay free

• French commissioner frees all enslaved workers, National Convention formally abolishes slavery

  • Because French republican troops were outnumbered on St. Domingue and there was imminent military disaster without this decision

• Formerly enslaved François Dominique Toussaint L’Ouverture serving the Spanish army joins the French

• Toussaint, who became governor of the island, arrested by order of Napoleon Bonaparte

• Toussaint dies in a French prison & remaining Black generals defeat Napoleon’s forces, creating Republic of Haiti

  • Up until 1802, it is the French Revolution

Back to 1799

• A foreign coalition (British, Austrians, & Russians) assembles against France

• June 1799 - Legislative deputies purge the directors

• October 1799 - Bonaparte returns to France from Egyptian Campaign

  • Secretly slipped out while his troops were pinned down by British admiral Lord Horatio Nelson

  • Appointed Commander of troops in Paris by Deputies of the Second Directory

• November 9, 1799 - Coup d’etat of 18th Brumaire

  • Napoleon enters the Council of 500 and demands changes to Constitution of 1795

  • Soldiers eject Deputies and the “Rump” votes to abolish the Directory and establish the 3-man Consulate

The Napoleonic Consulate: 1799-1804

• The Constitution of 1799

  • Napoleon is First Consul

  • First Consul chooses the Council of State

    • Council draws up all of the laws

  • Declaration of Rights eliminated

    • French government is no longer representative in any real sense

      • Eliminated direct elections for deputies and granted no independent powers to the three legislative houses

• System of Merit

  • Creation of “careers [supposedly] open to talent”

  • Middling classes gain administrative & judiciary seats & land

  • May 1802 - Legion of Honor

Napoleonic Empire, Part I, 1804-1812: Expansion

December 2, 1804 - Napoleon crowns himself Emperor Napoleon I

The Grand Army

• Conscription: 1800-1812 = 1.3 million men drafted

  • Draft dodging was possible, and happened almost 60% of the time

  • Overwhelmingly not from France but the sister republics established by the French

  • Another 1 million drafted between 1813-1814

  • Grand Army under Napoleon’s personal command

  • Inspired fanatical loyalty - “Napoleon’s presence alone was worth 50,000 men”

• 1812 - Napoleon commanded 700,000 men (250,000 in the field w/the others garrisoned in France)

• “One Great Battle”

• At sea:

  • 1805 - Great Britain defeats France & Spain at Trafalgar (Horatio Nelson dies)

• On land:

  • 1805 - France successful at Ulm (Bavaria) & at Austerlitz

  • 1806 - France defeats Prussians at Jena

  • 1807 - France defeats the Russians at Friedland

  • Treaty of Tilsit creates Kingdom of Westphalia & duchy of Warsaw

Political Impact of French Military Victories

• 1803 - Consolidation of German States

• 1806 - Confederation of the Rhine

• “Italy” organized into 3 units:

  • Satellite Kingdom of Italy & of Naples

  • Annexed territory to France (Includes Rome)

  • Italy had not been so unified since the Roman Empire

French-style Reforms

• Abolition of serfdom

• Elimination of seigneurial dues

• Application of the Napoleonic Code Civil

• Extension of religious toleration

• The example of Westphalia:

  • 1807 - King Jerome Bonaparte & Queen Catherine

The Continental System (1806)

• Prohibits all commerce between Great Britain and France

• British exports down 20% in 1807

• System fails because it is hard to enforce

  • Louis’s (his brother’s) lax enforcement infuriated Napoleon, and he annexed the satellite kingdom in 1810

More of Europe

• “Carbonari” in “Italy” resist Napoleonic Rule

  • 33,000 arrested in 1809

• Spanish War for Independence, 1807-1813

  • 100,000 French troops through Spain to fight Portugal

  • Portuguese Monarchy relocates to Brazil

  • 1808 - Joseph Bonaparte named King of Spain

• Invasion of Russia, 1812

  • 250,000 horses & 600,000 men (Italians, Poles, Swiss, Dutch, & German)

  • September 1812 - Napoleon enters deserted Moscow

  • October/November 1812 - Napoleon retreats from Moscow

The “Restoration” of Europe, 1815-1830

The Congress of Vienna, 1814-1815

• Allies place Louis XVIII on the French throne

• Metternich (Austria) & Castlereagh (Great Britain) & Talleyrand (France)

  • Work to establish secure states with clear borders by ‘restoring’ traditional rulers

Conservatism

• Seeks to preserve the “past”

• Edmund Burker’s Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790)

  • Argues that belief in “human equality” undermines the social order & monarchy should be preserved

  • Educated people must make the decisions for everyone

Nationalism

• Common language, religion, and customs create a common identity

• Grimm brothers collect “German” folktales

• Johann Gottlieb Fichte, “Addresses to the German Nation” after Prussian defeat at Jena (1806)

Liberalism

• Limited government and property-holder representation

• Influenced by Romanticism and Nationalism

• Economic liberalism: “laissez-faire” - Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations (1776)

  • Economic self-interest is good for the general interest

  • “The invisible hand” of the market will expand “the nations”

• Political liberalism: government’s purpose is to promote “life, liberty, and pursuit of property”/prevent despotism - Jeremey Bentham and Utilitarianism

  • “It is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right and wrong”

  • Most proponents oppose true (direct) democracy and have middle-class leanings

Socialism

• Thought develops in the 1820s

• Claims that “social” ownership of property benefits society

• Henri de Saint-Simon and the Saint-Simonians

  • In 1810s, Saint Simon argues the State ensures the welfare of the masses

  • Many adherents are entrepreneurs in the 1850s who build French banking, investment, and railroad systems

Communism

• Outgrowth of socialism

• Centered around common ownership of the means of production, distribution, and exchange allocating products to people based on need

• Eliminates private property (not belongings) and social classes

• Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Communist Manifesto (1848)

Industrialization and Social Ferment, 1830-1850

Innovations in Work

• Advent of machines

• New fuels & sources of power such as steam locomotives & looms

Involvement of the State

• Railroads

• Major employer

New Materials

• Coal and iron

New Mode of Production

• Factory system

• Gradual change in “Putting Out” system

New Social Structure

• Rural emigration to urban centers

• “Working class”

Gendering of Work

• Shift from work as a household unit to “men’s”, “women’s”, and “children’s” work in factories

Misery of the Working Classes

• Unsanitary conditions

• Cholera (1830-1832, 1847-1851)

  • Paris - 18,000 dead in 1832, 20,000 in 1849

  • London - 7,000 dead in 1832/1849

  • Russia - 250,000 dead in 1832, 1 million dead is 1849

• Stereotypes

  • Poor as ‘naturally’ drunk, sexually promiscuous, criminal

  • Argument that poor ‘deserved’ their poverty

Middle-Class Social Reform: The Gendering of Charity

• Religious movements focus on reform

• Saving “fallen women” & prostitutes

• Temperance movement saves “drunken husbands and fathers”

• Development of the workhouse in Great Britain

• MC (middling class) women lead these movements as well as abolitionist efforts (learn skills for later suffragette activities in these movements)

• Increase in factory discipline

Revolutions of 1848

Factors in Unrest:

• Enclosure

  • Land was used more for farming and vulnerable populations became even more vulnerable

• Growing populations stuck between “industrialization” and the “putting-out system”

• Depression of 1845-1846

  • Poor harvests & industrial downturn (potato blight)

Italy

• Election of Pope Pius IX (1846)

  • Secular ruler of Papal States who seemed to support Italian unification

• January 1848 - revolts force King of Sicily to grant a constitution

  • In Milan, a nationalist demonstration quickly degenerated into battles between Austrian forces and armed demonstrators

  • In Venice, an uprising drove out the Austrians

• March 1848 - Middling classes in Lombardy/Venetia call for separation from Austria and look for annexation to Piedmont (to buffer against working class demands)

• March 1848 - Charles Albert, King of Piedmont, attempts to unite Italy by declaring war on Austria but sues for peace in July

• 1849 - Citizens in the Papal States declare a Roman Republic when the Pope refuses to support Piedmont

  • March 1849 - Charles Albert vs. Austria (part 2) - defeat in six days leads Charles Albert to resign in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel II

  • Louis-Napoleon restores the Pope to power in the Papal States in July 1849

  • Piedmont’s 1848 liberal constitution remains (becomes the constitution of a united Italy in 1870s)

The German States

• February 1848 - German Confederation responds to instability in Paris

• March 1848 - Grand Duke in Baden installs a liberal government with a liberal constitution amendable to middling classes

  • German unification discussed at the Frankfurt Parliament

  • 500 self-appointed German liberals

  • Poor & artisans excluded from the Parliament and the possibility of representation

    • Also excluded Prussia and Austria, they were disinterested in creating a “Germany”

• King Frederick William IV of Prussia also extends government to the middle classes after learning of Metternich’s resignation (representative government with limited suffrage)

  • Metternich is the Prime Minister of Austria, advocated for shared and balanced power, as well as the concert of Europe

    • Resigns because of what is going on in Austria

• May 1848 - All German-elected Assembly debates Grossdeutschland (w/ German speaking Poles/Czechs, & Danes) vs. Kliendeustchland (excluding Austria and many “Germans”)

  • “Big” vs. “Little” Germany

• June 1848 - Frankfurt Parliament creates provisional government but not recognized by Prussia or Austria

  • No ability to raise soldiers or impose taxes or gain actual political authority

  • Liberals refuse ‘national uprising’ out of fear of the rural and working classes

• Fall 1848 - The Frankfurt Parliament unravels

• March 1850 - Erfurt Union

  • Prussia and other principalities (but not Austria) meet to discuss unification

  • Prussia disbands Union in November in response to Austrian hostility

Austria

• March 1848:

  • Demonstrations in Vienna calling for a constitution and dismissal of Prime Minister Metternich (Congress of Vienna) leads to his resignation

  • Imperial Court under Emperor Francis Joseph (Hapsburg Monarchy) agrees to a new constitution (middling classes) & abolition of serfdom to quell peasant discontent (March 1848)

  • Revolts also come from non-German parts of the Empire (Venezia, Hungary, Czech lands, Croatia)

Politics and Culture of the Nation-State, 1850-1870

Italian Unification: Royalty, War, & Foreign Help

Risorgimento

• A political a cultural renewal of “Italy” supported by middle classes (educated, urban property owners, & professional classes) against repressive regimes

Count Camillo de Cavour

• Prime minister of Piedmont (1852)

• Interested in “Italian unification” of northern and central peninsula

• Sends 20,000 troops to assist allies in the Crimean War (1854) (1/10 die) & attends Congress of Paris

Napoleon III at Plombières (1858)

• France helps Piedmont in exchange for Nice and Savoy

1859 - Austria vs. Piedmont/French

• Piedmont/French defeat Austrians at Magenta (color and Red Cross come of this) and Solferino but Napoleon III signs an armistice with Austria (Prussians on the Rhine & enlarged Piedmont Kingdom)

1860 - Parma, Modena, & Tuscany vote to join Piedmont after ousting Austria

• May 1860 - Giuseppe Garibaldi

  • Garibaldi is a political activist of sorts, he is known for Democratic Socialism as he interpreted it from the constitution

  • Red Shirt Army (1,000 men) takes Sicily and then Naples (57,000 men)

• November 1860 - United Italy

  • King Victor Emmanuel II of Piedmont rules (1861)

  • Plebiscites based on universal male suffrage call for unification

German Unification: Military Force & Prussian Might

Prussian King William I (r. 1861 - 1888)

• Disbands liberal parliament over their refusal to fund an increase in the professional army

• Appoints Otto “Iron and Blood” von Bismarck as prime minister

• Bismarck ignores the new parliament and collects taxes for the military

Reasons for Bismarck’s potential success:

• Liberal parliament had no broad support

• Prussian king and aristocrats wanted Prussian power, not German unification

• Liberal middle classes unwilling to align with the masses

Schleswig-Holstein Crisis

• Ethnically & linguistically German areas controlled by Denmark

• 1863 - Denmark tries to bring Schleswig closer to the Crown & Holstein calls on the German Confederation

• Prussia occupies Schleswig, Austria occupies Holstein

Austro-Prussia War

• June 1866 - Prussia attacks Austria (and allied smaller states) at Holstein

  • Prussia beats the alliance at the Battle of Sadowa

  • Prussia creates the North German Confederation:

    • Excludes Austria

    • Contiguous land north of Main River

    • Pro-Bismarck Prussian parliament elected

Creation of Austro-Hungary Monarchy

1850s and 1860s

• Continued confrontation with Cavour and Bismarck force Austria to make changes

• Emperor Francis Joseph attempts to enhance his authority through court ceremony in Vienna

• Standards improve in the government, the state promotes local education and rights of minorities

  • Schools taught German but the government respected rights of national minorities — Czechs and Poles, for instance — to receive education and communicate with official in their native tongues

• Internal barriers abolished, boom in private railway construction and foreign investment

• Vienna, like Paris, undergoes renovation, more jobs created as industrialization progresses

• Emperor Francis Joseph forced t modify policy in non-German part of the Empire as Germany imposes financial constraints

• Hungarian elites request Magyar (“40% of population” home rule, creating a “dual monarchy”) in 1867

• Although Francis Joseph was king, Hungary largely rules itself through restored parliament & constitution

  • Other ethnic groups within the empire increase demands for self-rule

  • Some turn to Russia, hoping to form a Pan-Slavism movement

  • Loyalty to the Habsburgs remained, but imperial subjects had difficulty relating to one another