1. Memory

1.1 Multiple-Store Model of Memory

• Definition: Proposes three distinct stores: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

1.2 Sensory Memory

• Characteristics:

  • Holds information for a very brief period (milliseconds).

  • Limited capacity.

  • Specific to each sense (e.g., iconic for sight, echoic for sound).

1.3 Short-Term (Working) Memory

• Characteristics:

  • Capacity: Approximately 7 ± 2 items (Miller’s Law).

  • Duration: 20-30 seconds without rehearsal.

• Functions:

  • Temporary storage of information.

  • Processing of information for encoding into long-term memory.

• Marketing Application of Miller’s Law:

  • Limit advertising messages to simple, memorable phrases or images that fit within the 7 ± 2 constraints for effective consumer retention.

1.4 Information Overload

• Definition: Occurs when the amount of information exceeds personal processing capacity.

• Effects on Consumer:

  • Increased anxiety and indecision.

  • Reduced ability to recall brand information or make choices.

1.5 Aids for Encoding

1. Rehearsal: Repeating information to reinforce memory.

2. Chunking: Breaking down information into smaller, manageable chunks.

3. Visualization: Creating mental images to accompany information.

4. Association: Linking new information to existing knowledge.

1.6 Schema

• Definition: Mental frameworks that organize and interpret information.

• Example in Marketing: Consumers might have a schema for a specific brand (e.g., Apple) that includes quality, innovation, and prestige. Marketers can leverage this by aligning their messaging with these associations.

1.7 Long-Term Memory

• Characteristics:

  • Potentially unlimited capacity.

  • Duration: Information can last a lifetime.

  • Organized by meaning.

1.8 Aids for Retrieval

• Cues: Using prompts to trigger recall (e.g., jingle or logo).

• Context: Recalling information in the same environment where it was learned.

1.9 Forgetting

• Definition: The inability to access or retrieve information from memory.

• Forgetting Processes:

  • Decay: Information fades over time if not retrieved.

  • Interference: New information disrupts recall of old information.

1.10 False Memories

• Definition: Distorted or fabricated recollections of events that did not occur.

• Generation Process: Can occur through suggestive questioning or misinformation, leading to alterations in original memories.

1.11 Involvement's Effect on Memory

• Higher Involvement: Leads to deeper processing and storage of information, often resulting in better recall.

2. Learning

2.1 Learning Process

• Definition: The cognitive and behavioral changes resulting from experience.

2.2 Incidental Learning

• Example: Learning about a product’s features through incidental exposure (like seeing a product in a movie).

2.3 Behavioral Learning vs. Cognitive Learning

• Behavioral Learning: Focuses on observable behavior changes as a result of stimuli (e.g., conditioning).

• Cognitive Learning: Emphasizes mental processes and the acquisition of knowledge (e.g., problem-solving).

2.4 Classical Conditioning

• Definition: A learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a response.

• Marketing Use: Pairing products with positive emotions to create favorable consumer responses.

• Generalization: Consumers may respond similarly to similar stimuli (e.g., similar brand logos). This impacts marketing strategies to maintain brand differentiation.

2.5 Effectiveness of Classical Conditioning in Marketing

• Evaluation: While effective for creating associations, its long-term effectiveness may diminish without reinforcement.

3. Behavioral Learning Continued

3.1 Operant Conditioning

• Definition: Learning achieved through reinforcement or punishment.

• Marketing Examples: Loyalty programs using rewards for repeat purchases to reinforce positive buying behavior.

3.2 Shaping

• Description: Gradually modifying behavior through reinforcement of successive approximations to the desired behavior.

3.3 Reinforcers and Punishers

• Reinforcement Types:

  • Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., discounts).

  • Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., free shipping).

  • Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behavior (e.g., late fees).

  • Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior (e.g., losing membership perks).

3.4 Schedules of Reinforcement

• Fixed-Interval: Reinforcement after a specified time (e.g., paycheck).

• Variable-Interval: Reinforcement at unpredictable intervals (e.g., randomly timed sales).

• Fixed-Ratio: Reinforcement after a set number of responses (e.g., buy 10, get 1 free).

• Variable-Ratio: Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., loyalty rewards).

4. Cognitive Learning

4.1 Observational (Vicarious) Learning

• Definition: Learning through the observation of others’ behaviors and the outcomes of those behaviors.

• Marketing Implications: Brands can leverage influencers to demonstrate product value through observed successes.