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Chapter 1: An Introduction to the Human Body

Purpose of the Chapter

• Introduce anatomy and physiology as specific disciplines

• Consider organization of living things

• Reveal shared properties of all living things

• Homeostasis: Major theme throughout the book

Definitions

Anatomy

• Science of structure

• Explored through dissection (cutting apart) and imaging techniques

Physiology

• Science of body functions

• Focus on normal adult physiology

• Include genetic variations

Anatomy and Physiology Defined

• Anatomy: Study of structure and relationships among structures

• Subdivisions of Anatomy:

  • Surface anatomy

  • Gross anatomy

  • Systemic anatomy

  • Regional anatomy

  • Radiographic anatomy

  • Developmental anatomy

  • Embryology

  • Cytology

  • Pathological anatomy

• Physiology: Study of how body structures function

  • Subdivisions:

    • Cell physiology

    • Systems physiology

    • Pathophysiology

    • Exercise physiology

    • Neurophysiology

    • Endocrinology

    • Cardiovascular physiology

    • Immunophysiology

    • Respiratory physiology

    • Renal physiology

    • Reproductive physiology

Levels of Organization

1. Chemical Level

2. Cellular Level

3. Tissue Level

4. Organ Level

5. System Level

6. Organismic Level

Human Body Systems

• Systems include:

  • Integumentary

  • Skeletal

  • Muscular

  • Nervous

  • Endocrine

  • Cardiovascular

  • Lymphatic

  • Respiratory

  • Urinary

  • Digestive

  • Reproductive

Clinical Application Techniques

• Palpation: Feel body surfaces with hands

• Auscultation: Listen to body sounds (e.g., heart, lungs)

• Percussion: Tap on body surface and listen to echoes

Characteristics of Living Organisms

• Metabolism: Sum of all chemical processes

• Responsiveness: Ability to detect and respond to changes

• Movement: Motion of whole body, organs, cells

• Growth: Increase in size and complexity

• Differentiation: Change from unspecialized to specialized state

• Reproduction: Formation of new cells or individuals

Homeostasis

• Condition of equilibrium in the body’s internal environment regulated by processes

• Maintaining internal environment within physiological limits (e.g., blood glucose levels)

• Described first by French physiologist, Claude Bernard; term coined by Walter Cannon

Body Fluids

• Intracellular Fluid: Fluid inside cells

• Extracellular Fluid (ECF): Fluid outside cells, divided into:

  • Interstitial fluid: between tissue cells

  • Plasma: in blood vessels

Control of Homeostasis

• Disruptions by external or internal stimuli

• Regulated by the nervous and endocrine systems

• Feedback Loop Components:

  • Receptor: Monitors condition

  • Control Center: Determines actions

  • Effector: Carries out responses

Feedback Systems

• Negative Feedback: Reversal of changes (e.g., blood pressure regulation)

• Positive Feedback: Enhancement of changes (e.g., childbirth)

Homeostatic Imbalances

• Disruption leads to disease

• Diagnosis: Art of distinguishing diseases based on signs and symptoms

Aging and Homeostasis

• Aging leads to decline in body responses

Basic Anatomical Terminology

• Anatomical Position: Standardized reference

• Directional Terms: Medial, lateral, superior, inferior

• Body Regions: Specific names for body parts

• Planes and Sections: Midsagittal, coronal, transverse

Body Cavities

• Spaces that help protect and support organs

• Dorsal Body Cavity: Cranial and vertebral

• Ventral Body Cavity: Thoracic and abdominopelvic

• Serous Membranes: Parietal and visceral layers reducing friction

Clinical Applications

• Autopsy: Postmortem examination

• Medical Imaging Techniques: X-rays, CT scans, MRIs, etc.

Chapter 2: The Chemical Level of Organization

Introduction

• Importance of understanding chemistry in biological context

Basic Principles of Chemistry

• Matter: Anything that occupies space and has mass

• Elements: Cannot be broken down; includes major elements (O, C, H, N)

Structure of Atoms

• Atoms consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons

• Atomic number: Number of protons; mass number: Protons + neutrons

• Isotopes: Atoms with same protons but different neutrons

Ions and Compounds

• Ions: Charged particles formed by ionization

• Molecules: Combinations of two or more atoms

• Chemical Bonds: Attractions that hold atoms together (ionic, covalent, hydrogen)

Chemical Reactions

• Reactants undergo transformation to form products

• Types: Synthesis, decomposition, exchange, reversible reactions

Energy in Chemical Reactions

• Kinetic Energy: Energy of motion

• Potential Energy: Stored energy; often in bonds

• Activation Energy: Energy needed to initiate reactions

Water as the Universal Solvent

• Importance of water in biological systems; polarity aids in reactions

Acids, Bases, and pH

• Acids release H+, bases release OH-; pH scale measures acidity

Organic Molecules

• Carbohydrates: Source of energy; include sugars and starches

• Lipids: Store energy, structural component of membranes

• Proteins: Essential for structure and function, made of amino acids

• Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA responsible for genetic information

Chapter 3: The Cellular Level of Organization

Introduction

• Cells as the basic unit of life

• Study of cells includes cytology and cell physiology

Parts of a Cell

1. Plasma membrane

2. Cytoplasm

3. Nucleus

Plasma Membrane

• Structure based on fluid mosaic model

• Functions as selective barrier

Transport Mechanisms

• Passive transport (diffusion, osmosis) and active transport (requires energy)

• Vesicular transport for larger particles

Organelles

• Specialized structures performing specific functions

• Include mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus

• Lysosomes: Digestive enzymes

• Peroxisomes: Detoxification

• Cytoskeleton: Provides structure and support

Nucleus

• Contains DNA and governs cell functions

Cell Division

• Mitosis and meiosis as processes for cell division

Tissue Repair

• Processes involving inflammation and regeneration

Chapter 4: The Tissue Level of Organization

Introduction

• Tissues as groups of similar cells performing common functions

Types of Tissues

1. Epithelial

2. Connective

3. Muscle

4. Nervous

Epithelial Tissue

• Functions include protection, secretion, absorption

• Classified by number of layers and shape

Connective Tissue

• Supports and connects other tissue types

• Types include loose, dense, adipose, cartilage, bone, and blood

Muscle Tissue

• Types include skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle

Nervous Tissue

• Composed of neurons and supporting glial cells

Disorders Related to Tissues

• Conditions affecting types of tissue and their healing capacity

Chapter 5: The Integumentary System

Introduction

• Functions to protect, regulate temperature, and provide sensory information

Skin Structure

• Composed of epidermis and dermis, with accessory structures like hair and glands

Functions of Skin

• Protection, sensation, thermoregulation, and vitamin D synthesis

Wound Healing

• Processes of epidermal and deep wound healing, including phases of healing

Aging and Skin

• Changes in skin with age, effects of sun exposure

Disorders

• Various skin disorders, including cancer and burns