Mid Term Review - Dual Credit US History 1302

Chapter 16- America’s Gilded Age, 1870–1890(David Franco)

The Grange

• The Grange, formally known as the Patrons of Husbandry, was founded in 1867 by Oliver H. Kelley to support struggling farmers.

• It aimed to advocate for rural farmers' rights against railroad monopolies and grain storage fees.

• The Grange movement pushed for laws like the Granger Laws, which regulated railroad and grain elevator rates.

• Although its influence declined after the 1880s, it laid the groundwork for later agrarian movements like the Populist Party.

Elks v. Wilkins (1884)

• A Supreme Court case where John Elk, a Native American who left his tribe and tried to claim U.S. citizenship, was denied voting rights.

• The Court ruled that Native Americans were not automatically U.S. citizens unless granted citizenship by Congress.

• This reinforced legal barriers preventing Indigenous people from gaining equal rights.

Nativism and Nativist Groups

• Nativism was the anti-immigrant sentiment that surged in the late 19th century due to increased immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe.

• Groups like the American Protective Association (APA) and the Know-Nothings sought to restrict Catholic and non-Anglo-Saxon immigrants.

• Chinese immigrants were especially targeted, leading to the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, which banned Chinese laborers from entering the U.S.

Railroads and Their Contributions to Westward Expansion

• The completion of the Transcontinental Railroad (1869) connected the East and West, allowing goods and people to move rapidly.

• Railroads spurred economic growth by opening Western lands for settlement, boosting agricultural exports, and expanding industries like steel.

• The government subsidized railroads with land grants, leading to rapid expansion but also corruption (e.g., Credit Mobilier Scandal).

• Native Americans suffered displacement as railroads encouraged settlers and military campaigns against tribes.

Captains of Industry and Contributions

• The term "Captains of Industry" (or "Robber Barons") referred to industrialists who dominated the economy:

  • Andrew Carnegie (Steel) – Used vertical integration and philanthropy (Carnegie Libraries).

  • John D. Rockefeller (Oil) – Founded Standard Oil and perfected horizontal integration.

  • J.P. Morgan (Banking) – Financed railroads and helped stabilize markets.

  • Cornelius Vanderbilt (Railroads) – Built a shipping and railroad empire.

• Their contributions helped modernize the U.S. economy but also led to debates over wealth concentration and labor exploitation.

Trusts and Monopolies

• Trusts were business arrangements where companies consolidated under a single board to limit competition (e.g., Rockefeller's Standard Oil Trust).

• The Sherman Antitrust Act (1890) was the first federal attempt to regulate monopolies, but it was initially weakly enforced.

Types of Economic Systems

• Capitalism: Private ownership of businesses, competition-driven economy (U.S. model).

• Socialism: Government or collective control of industries for social welfare.

• Communism: A classless society where the government owns all production (Marxist theory).

Bureau of Indian Affairs / Indian Citizenship Act (1924)

• The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) managed relations with Native Americans but was often corrupt and promoted assimilation policies (e.g., Indian boarding schools).

• The Indian Citizenship Act (1924) granted U.S. citizenship to Native Americans, though many were still denied voting rights by state laws.

Labor Unions and Strikes

• The late 19th century saw the rise of unions like the Knights of Labor (open to all workers) and the American Federation of Labor (AFL) (skilled workers only).

• Major strikes included:

  • Great Railroad Strike (1877) – First nationwide labor strike, violently suppressed.

  • Haymarket Affair (1886) – A bomb exploded at a labor rally, leading to anti-union sentiment.

  • Homestead Strike (1892) – Carnegie Steel workers clashed with Pinkerton guards.

Chapter 17- Freedom’s Boundaries at Home and Abroad, 1890–1900 Dylan Tran

• Populist Movement- a political movement in the late 1800s that fought for farmers and workers against big businesses, changing government control of railroads, fairer taxes, and using silver money to help the economy.

• Farmers’ Alliance- a group formed in the late 1800s to help farmers fight against high railroad prices and unfair bank practices, creating the Populist Party

• The Redeemers- White Southern Democrats who took back power after Reconstruction. They reduced rights for Black people and cut spending on schools and public services.

• Tape v. Hurley- a court case in California where the Chinese Tape family sued the San Francisco school board for refusing to let their daughter, Mamie Tape, attend a public school because of her race. The Supreme Court ruled in favor of the Tape family, saying that all children had the right to public education. However, instead of integrating schools, the state created separate schools for Chinese children, reinforcing segregation.

• March on Washington 1894- led by Jacob Coxey (Coxey’s army), was a protest by unemployed workers who wanted the government to create jobs by building roads, their demands were ignored, and Coxey was arrested for walking on the Capital lawn.

• American Imperialism in Pacific and Far East- policies and acquisitions- Hawaii, Philippines, Guam, China, Panama Canal

• Spanish American War- short war between the U.S. and Spain over Cuba’s independence. USS Maine exploded, U.S. blamed Spain and went to war, winning. U.S. gained Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines, Cuba became independent. Philippines resisted U.S. rule.

• Kansas Exodus- Encouraged by Benjamin “Pap” Singleton, thousands of Blacks left the South to escape racism and get better lives in Kansas. Wanted freedom, jobs, and land but struggled due to poverty. 

• Women’s Christian Temperance Union- Group formed in 1874 to fight against alcohol because they believed it caused problems like violence and poverty also supported women’s rights.

• Booker T. Washington- A black leader who believed education and hard work would help Blacks succeed. He founded Tuskegee Institute and focused on economic progress instead of directly fighting segregation.

• Plessy v. Ferguson- A Supreme Court case that said segregation was legal if facilities were “separate but equal” stayed until Brown v. Board of Education (1954).

• Annexation of Hawaii- American businessmen and plantation owners overthrew Queen Liliʻuokalani. Controlled Hawaii, making it a U.S. territory, giving us a place for trade and military bases in the Pacific.

• American Federation of Labor- A labor union founded in 1886 by Samuel Gompers to fight for better wages, hours, and working conditions for skilled workers.

Chapter 18- The Progressive Era, 1900–1916(David Franco)

New Labor Movements – Industrial Workers of the World (IWW)

The Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), also called the Wobblies, was a radical labor organization founded in 1905. It aimed to unite all workers, regardless of skill level, race, or gender, into one big union to challenge capitalism and the power of large corporations.

Key aspects of the IWW:

• Opposed the American Federation of Labor (AFL), which only represented skilled workers.

• Advocated for direct action, including strikes, sabotage, and protests.

• Led major strikes in textile mills, mines, and logging camps.

• Emphasized solidarity among workers worldwide, rejecting craft-based unions.

• Suppressed by government crackdowns, especially during World War I, when IWW leaders were jailed for opposing the war.

The IWW never reached the size of the AFL but significantly influenced the labor movement and inspired future activism.

Progressive Movement

The Progressive Movement (1900–1916) was a nationwide reform effort aimed at addressing the social, economic, and political problems caused by industrialization and urbanization.

Key goals of the movement:

• Regulating big business to prevent monopolies and corporate corruption (e.g., Sherman Antitrust Act enforcement).

• Improving working conditions, including child labor laws and workplace safety.

• Expanding democracy, with reforms like direct election of senators (17th Amendment) and women’s suffrage (19th Amendment).

• Social justice reforms, including settlement houses, public health programs, and anti-lynching campaigns.

• Environmental conservation, with policies protecting national parks and forests.

Progressives included muckrakers (investigative journalists like Upton Sinclair), politicians (Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson), and activists (Jane Addams, Ida B. Wells).

Oregon System

The Oregon System refers to a series of Progressive-era political reforms implemented in Oregon that expanded democracy and increased direct participation in government. These reforms included:

• Initiative – Allowed citizens to propose laws directly by gathering enough petition signatures.

• Referendum – Enabled voters to approve or reject laws passed by legislatures.

• Recall – Gave voters the power to remove elected officials before their term ended.

These reforms spread to other states and significantly increased public control over government, reducing the influence of political machines and special interests.

Eugene V. Debs

Eugene V. Debs was a leading socialist, labor organizer, and five-time presidential candidate for the Socialist Party of America. He played a key role in:

• The Pullman Strike (1894) – Led the American Railway Union (ARU) in a strike against the Pullman Company, which was crushed by federal troops.

• The Socialist Party (founded 1901) – Advocated for government control of industries, workers’ rights, and wealth redistribution.

• Opposing World War I, for which he was jailed under the Espionage Act (1917) for criticizing the war and urging resistance to the draft.

Debs' ideas influenced later New Deal labor policies and the broader American socialist movement.

Immigration – Push and Pull Factors

The Progressive Era saw millions of immigrants arriving in the U.S., primarily from Southern and Eastern Europe (Italy, Poland, Russia, Greece).

Push Factors (Reasons for Leaving Home Countries):

• Political oppression (e.g., Russian pogroms against Jews).

• Poverty and economic hardship (e.g., Italian farmers losing land).

• Religious persecution (especially against Jews and Catholics).

• Overpopulation in Europe, leading to job shortages.

Pull Factors (Reasons for Coming to the U.S.):

• Job opportunities in factories, mines, and railroads.

• Religious and political freedom (e.g., escaping persecution).

• Higher wages compared to their home countries.

• Family connections – Many immigrants arrived through chain migration, following relatives.

Despite these opportunities, immigrants faced nativism, discrimination, and poor working/living conditions in overcrowded urban areas.

Triangle Shirtwaist Fire (1911)

The Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire in New York City was one of the deadliest industrial disasters in U.S. history.

• A fire broke out on the 8th, 9th, and 10th floors of the garment factory.

• 146 workers, mostly young immigrant women, died because:

  • Doors were locked to prevent unauthorized breaks.

  • Fire escapes were poorly constructed and collapsed.

  • There were no sprinkler systems.

The tragedy led to major labor reforms, including fire safety laws, factory inspections, and stricter labor regulations. It strengthened the progressive labor movement and the push for workers’ rights.

Henry Ford and Contributions

Henry Ford, founder of Ford Motor Company, revolutionized industrial production through:

• Assembly Line (1913) – Mass production technique that lowered car prices and increased efficiency.

• Model T (1908) – Affordable automobile that transformed American transportation.

• $5 Workday (1914) – Doubled workers’ wages, reducing turnover and allowing workers to buy the cars they built.

• Standardized parts – Made manufacturing and repairs easier.

Ford’s innovations shaped modern industry, but he was also criticized for anti-union policies and controversial personal views.

Samuel Gompers

Samuel Gompers was the founder and longtime president of the American Federation of Labor (AFL).

• Focused on practical economic gains rather than radical social change.

• Advocated for "pure and simple unionism" – higher wages, shorter hours, and better working conditions.

• Opposed socialist and anarchist movements, believing in incremental reforms.

• Led the AFL to become the largest and most influential labor union in the U.S. by prioritizing skilled workers.

His leadership helped legitimize unionism in American society, though he largely ignored unskilled workers, women, and minorities.

Theodore Roosevelt and His Policies and Programs

As president (1901–1909), Theodore Roosevelt was a Progressive reformer known for his bold policies:

1. Trust-Busting

• Enforced the Sherman Antitrust Act to break up monopolies (e.g., Northern Securities Company).

• Targeted big businesses that harmed competition and consumers.

2. Square Deal (His Domestic Policy)

• Consumer Protection – Passed the Pure Food and Drug Act and Meat Inspection Act after Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle exposed unsanitary conditions.

• Corporation Regulation – Strengthened government oversight of railroads and big businesses.

• Conservation – Created national parks, forests, and wildlife refuges (e.g., established the U.S. Forest Service in 1905).

3. Foreign Policy – "Big Stick Diplomacy"

• Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine – Declared the U.S. would intervene in Latin America to prevent European involvement.

• Panama Canal – Engineered its construction by supporting Panama’s independence from Colombia.

Roosevelt’s presidency expanded federal power, strengthened consumer protections, and established the U.S. as a global power.

Chapter 19- Safe for Democracy: The United States and World War I, 1916–1920 - Olivia

• Eugenics – causes and consequences

  • Movement aimed at improving the genetic quality of the human population

  • Fueled by ideas of racial superiority, scientific racism, and Progressive Era beliefs in social reform through science

  • Causes:

    • Rise of Social Darwinism and the belief in "survival of the fittest"

    • Fear of immigration and racial mixing weakening the national gene pool

    • Attempts to "scientifically" control crime, poverty, and mental illness

    • Support from influential scientists, politicians, and philanthropists

  • Consequences:

    • Forced sterilization of thousands of people deemed "unfit" (mentally ill, disabled, poor, minorities)

    • Restrictive immigration laws (e.g., Immigration Act of 1924, favoring Northern Europeans)

    • Influence on Nazi racial policies in Germany

    • Ethical and human rights violations leading to later repudiation of eugenics

• Buck v. Bell

  • This Supreme Court case upheld Virginia's sterilization law, allowing forced sterilization of those deemed "unfit" to reproduce.

  • Carrie Buck, a young woman institutionalized for being "feebleminded," was sterilized against her will.

  • Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes wrote the infamous decision: "Three generations of imbeciles are enough."

  • The ruling legitimized eugenics laws across the U.S., leading to the sterilization of over 60,000 people.

• WWI – Cause and effects

  • Causes:

    • Militarism – European nations built up massive militaries.

    • Alliances – Complex alliance systems (Triple Entente vs. Triple Alliance) dragged multiple nations into war.

    • Imperialism – Competition for colonies increased tensions.

    • Nationalism – Ethnic groups sought independence, leading to tensions in Austria-Hungary.

    • Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand – The immediate spark that led to war in 1914.

  • The U.S. entered the war in 1917 due to:

    • German unrestricted submarine warfare (e.g., sinking of the Lusitania).

    • The Zimmerman Telegram (Germany's proposal for Mexico to join the war against the U.S.).

    • Economic ties with the Allies.

  • Effects:

    • Political – Expansion of federal power (Espionage and Sedition Acts limited free speech).

    • Economic – War industries boosted the economy, but post-war recession hit hard.

    • Social – Women entered the workforce, leading to progress in suffrage (19th Amendment).

    • Global – Treaty of Versailles (1919) punished Germany, contributing to WWII tensions.

    • League of Nations – Created to prevent future wars, but the U.S. refused to join.
      

• New War Technology

  • Trench Warfare – Defensive strategy that led to stalemates and high casualties.

  • Machine Guns – Increased firepower, making frontal assaults nearly suicidal.

  • Poison Gas – Used for the first time on a large scale (mustard gas, chlorine gas), causing horrific injuries.

  • Tanks – Introduced by Britain to break through enemy lines.

  • Airplanes – First used for reconnaissance, later for dogfights and bombing.

  • Submarines (U-Boats) – Germany’s unrestricted submarine warfare threatened Allied and neutral shipping.

  • Artillery – Advanced long-range guns caused mass destruction.

• Women contribution and War industry

  • Women worked in factories producing weapons, ammunition, and other war supplies.

  • Many joined jobs in transportation (streetcar operators, delivery workers).

  • "Rosie the Riveter" became a symbol (more prominent in WWII but began in WWI).

  • Served as nurses, ambulance drivers, and telephone operators ("Hello Girls").

  • Joined organizations like the Red Cross and the YMCA to support soldiers.

  • Proved women's capabilities in the workforce, strengthening the push for women's suffrage.

  • Contributed to the passage of the 19th Amendment (1920), granting women the right to vote.

• Home Front efforts and War offices and organizations

  • War Industries Board (WIB) – Led by Bernard Baruch, controlled production, allocated resources, and standardized goods to boost war efficiency.

  • Food Administration – Led by Herbert Hoover, encouraged food conservation with slogans like "Meatless Mondays" and "Wheatless Wednesdays."

  • Fuel Administration – Promoted energy conservation (introduced Daylight Saving Time).

  • Committee on Public Information (CPI) – Led by George Creel, used propaganda to promote patriotism and war support.

  • Liberty Bonds – Sold to finance the war; citizens were urged to invest.

  • Espionage & Sedition Acts – Suppressed dissent, punishing those critical of the war effort.

• Race riots

  • Great Migration – Hundreds of thousands of African Americans moved north for war jobs, escaping Southern racism but facing hostility in Northern cities.

  • 1919 Red Summer – A wave of race riots across the U.S., including:

    • Chicago Riot (1919) – A Black teenager drowned after being attacked for swimming in a "white" area, sparking violent clashes.

    • Washington, D.C., and other cities – White mobs attacked Black communities, leading to armed resistance.

  • Causes:

    • Competition for jobs and housing.

    • White resentment toward Black veterans asserting their rights.

    • Racial tensions inflamed by white supremacist groups.

• Eighteenth Amendment- Cause and Effect

  • Prohibited the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcohol in the U.S.

  • Causes:

    • Temperance Movement – Led by groups like the Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) and the Anti-Saloon League, arguing alcohol led to crime, domestic abuse, and workplace inefficiency.

    • WWI Influence – Beer was associated with Germany, and conserving grain for food production became a patriotic duty.

    • Moral and Religious Advocacy – Many saw prohibition as a way to improve American society.

  • Effects:

    • Rise of Organized Crime – Illegal alcohol trade flourished (Al Capone, speakeasies).

    • Law Enforcement Challenges – The government struggled to enforce prohibition.

    • Economic Impact – Loss of tax revenue from alcohol sales hurt government finances.

    • Repeal (1933) – The 21st Amendment repealed prohibition due to its failures.

Chapter 20- From Business Culture to Great Depression: The Twenties, 1920–1932 - Olivia

• Causes and effects of Great Depression

  • The worst economic crisis in U.S. history, beginning with the stock market crash in 1929.

  • Causes:

    • Stock Market Crash (1929) – On Black Tuesday (October 29, 1929), stock prices collapsed, wiping out billions of dollars.

    • Overproduction and Underconsumption – Businesses produced more goods than people could afford to buy, leading to declining sales and layoffs.

    • Agricultural Crisis – Farmers had overproduced crops, causing prices to plummet. Many faced foreclosure.

    • Bank Failures – Weakly regulated banks collapsed after people withdrew their money in panic.

    • Weak International Trade – High tariffs (e.g., Smoot-Hawley Tariff, 1930) hurt global trade, worsening the downturn.

    • Income Inequality – A small percentage of Americans controlled most of the wealth, leaving many unable to sustain economic growth.

  • Effects:

    • Unemployment skyrocketed (reaching 25% by 1933).

    • Mass poverty – Breadlines and shantytowns ("Hoovervilles") spread across cities.

    • Bankruptcies – Thousands of businesses and banks shut down.

    • Decline in global trade – Countries imposed tariffs, worsening the global depression.

    • Rise of government intervention – Led to Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal in 1933.

• Hays Code

  • A set of industry guidelines for Hollywood films to promote "morality" and avoid controversial content.

  • Prevent sex, crime, and anti-religious themes in movies.

  • Respond to public concerns about Hollywood scandals in the 1920s.

  • No nudity or suggestive behavior.

  • No glorification of criminals or immoral acts.

  • No disrespect toward religion or law enforcement.

  • No interracial relationships depicted.

  • Censorship limited creativity in filmmaking until its decline in the 1960s.

  • Replaced by the modern MPAA rating system in 1968.

• American Plan

  •  Business-driven campaign against labor unions in the 1920s.

  • Promote "open shops" (workplaces where employees were not required to join a union).

  • Reduce union power and collective bargaining.

  • Welfare Capitalism – Offered benefits like pensions and healthcare to discourage unionization.

  • Yellow-Dog Contracts – Forced workers to pledge not to join unions.

  • Anti-Union Propaganda – Framed unions as un-American and linked them to socialism/communism.

  • Union membership declined in the 1920s.

  • Led to worker exploitation and poor conditions, contributing to later labor reforms in the 1930s.

• Bonus Army

  • A group of 43,000 WWI veterans and supporters who marched to Washington, D.C., demanding early payment of promised war bonuses.

  • Congress had promised veterans a cash bonus for their service, payable in 1945.

  • Due to the Great Depression, veterans needed the money immediately.

  • Over 17,000 veterans camped in D.C., peacefully protesting for early payments.

  • President Herbert Hoover refused their demands.

  • The U.S. Army, led by General Douglas MacArthur, violently dispersed the protesters, using tear gas and tanks.

  • Public outrage at the government’s treatment of veterans.

  • Contributed to Hoover’s unpopularity and his loss to FDR in 1932.

Chapter 21- The New Deal, 1932–1940 - Ryan

• Popular Front ("any coalition of working-class and middle-class parties", including liberal and social democratic ones, "united for the defense of democratic forms" against "a presumed Fascist assault".)

• Catholics, Jews, and new immigrant voters made ethnic pluralism central to American politics

• Election of Fiorello La Guardia, an Italian American, as New York’s mayor in 1933 represented the growing power of ethnic working-class voters

• The CIO and the Communist Party grew from a very small and isolated group into a mass organization (supported the unemployed, workers and unions, and civil rights for African Americans)

• At the height of the Popular Front, the Communist Party was considered respectable

• The Popular Front vision of America influenced culture through theater, film, and dance

• Folk music and black spirituals were held to express genuine Americanism.

• Popular Front culture strongly condemned racism as incompatible with Americanism

• The Communist Party was the only mostly white organization of the era to prioritize combating racism (even found support in the conservative South)

• Communists supported black defendants victimized by a racist criminal justice system

• made the Scottsboro case an international cause.

• Nine young black men in Scottsboro, Alabama, were arrested in 1931 for raping two white women. Although one of the two accusers recanted, the men were put on trial and convicted three times. The Supreme Court rejected the first two verdicts and decided that the defendants have a constitutional right to effective legal representation, and that blacks cannot be systematically excluded from juries. But the Court approved the third conviction, and five of the men went to prison for more than a decade

• Popular Front culture also supported civil liberties, especially the right of workers to organize unions

• In 1936, a Senate committee led by Robert M. La Follette exposed the harsh methods employers used to fight unionization, including spies and private police. 

• The Supreme Court abandoned “liberty of contract” for a definition of American freedom based on civil liberties, and allowed free speech for communists, labor picketing, and initiated the repeal of numerous state laws that inhibited expression

• In 1938, the U.S. House of Representatives created an “Un-American Activities Committee” to end disloyalty and “un-American” behavior and speech

• Congress passed the Smith Act, which made it a crime to “teach, advocate, or encourage” the overthrow of government

• Indian New Deal

• Commissioner of Indian affairs John Collier launched an “Indian New Deal,” ending the policy of coerced assimilation and granting unprecedented cultural autonomy

• He replaced boarding schools with reservation schools and increased spending on Indian health

• He also ended the policy, which had been implemented since passage of the Dawes Act, of dividing Indian lands into small plots for individual families and selling off the rest.

• Federal officials now recognized the right of Indians to govern their own communities, except in areas covered by federal law.

• Barely improved living conditions on extremely poor reservations

• FDR and first 100 days

• FDR was born in 1882, a fifth cousin of Theodore Roosevelt

• He graduated from Harvard and served in the New York state legislature and as undersecretary of the navy in World War I.

• He contracted polio and lost the use of his legs—a fact concealed from the public in the pre-television era

• Roosevelt discussed the government's responsibility to ensure that every man had “a right to make a comfortable living”

• Roosevelt won 57 percent of the popular vote

• Roosevelt envisioned the New Deal as an alternative to socialism, fascism, and unregulated capitalism. He wanted to reconcile democracy, individual liberty, and economic planning

• The “brains trust,” a group of academics that included several Columbia University professors, thought bigness was inevitable in a modern economy

• At his inauguration, he declared that “the only thing we have to fear is fear itself.” 

• Roosevelt declared a “bank holiday,” temporarily halting all bank operations, and called a special session of Congress, which, on March 9, passed the Emergency Banking Act to provide funds to endangered banks.

• The Glass-Steagall Act barred commercial banks from buying and selling stocks, and until its repeal in the 1990s, it helped prevent many of the irresponsible practices that had led to the stock market crash.

• Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), ensured the accounts of individual depositors

• Roosevelt took the United States off the gold standard

• National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA), largely based on the government–business partnership created by the War Industries Board in World War I. 

• The NRA soon adopted codes that set standards for production, prices, and wages in the textile, steel, mining, and auto industries.

• The Economy Act reduced federal spending in the hopes of winning business support

• In May 1933, Congress established the Federal Emergency Relief Administration to make grants to local relief agencies

• In March 1933, Congress established the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), which set unemployed young men to work on projects such as forest preservation and the improvement of national parks and wildlife preserves

• The Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) let the government try to raise farm prices by establishing production quotas for major crops and paying farmers not to plant more

• Court packing causes and consequences

• Arguing that several Supreme Court justices were too old to perform their functions, FDR proposed that the president be allowed to appoint a new justice for each who remained on the Court past age seventy (six at that time)

• FDR’s goal was to change the balance of power on a Court that might invalidate Social Security, the Wagner Act, and other parts of the Second New Deal

• Congress rejected the plan

• Immediately he was criticized as an aspiring dictator

• Roosevelt’s “Court-packing” threat seemed to persuade the Court to accept economic regulation by the state and federal governments.

• The Court soon upheld a minimum wage law; affirmed federal power to regulate wages, hours, and child labor; and rejected challenges to Social Security and the Wagner Act

• Critics of New Deal

• Robert A. Taft was the leader of the Republican Party's conservative wing; he consistently denounced the New Deal as "socialism" and argued that it harmed America's business interests and gave ever-greater control to the central government in Washington

• Ronald Reagan, Hollywood film actor; strong New Dealer in 1940s; started opposing New Deal programs in the 1950s as a spokesman for the General Electric company

• Herbert Hoover

• Eleanor Roosevelt and contributions

• The first “modern” first lady

• Had her own press conferences for women only reporters, holding more than three hundred throughout her twelve years in the White House

• Eleanor traveled the country, visiting the sites of relief projects, delivering radio broadcasts, and meeting citizens

• Between 1941 and 1942, Eleanor served as Assistant Director of Civilian Defense, organizing volunteer workers

• After the United States entered World War II, she traveled to England where she spent time with wounded servicemembers and visited military bases and distribution centers

• In 1943, Eleanor became the first first lady to travel to an active war zone when she undertook a month-long journey to the warfront in the Pacific. Traveling as a representative of the Red Cross, she went to Australia, New Zealand, Guadalcanal, and numerous Pacific islands, visiting troops, hospitals, and factories

• President Harry S. Truman appointed Eleanor as a delegate to the United Nations

• She played an important role in drafting the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Chapter 22- World War II - Ryan

• Immediate Causes of WWII to begin in Europe and US

• European Aggression and Expansionism  

• Adolf Hitler: aggressive actions 

• remilitarization of Germany, violating the Versailles Treaty

• In 1936, Hitler remilitarized the Rhineland, a demilitarized zone between France and Germany

• annexation of Austria and Sudetenland in 1938

• full invasion and occupation of Czechoslovakia

• Benito Mussolini’s invasion of Ethiopia in 1935

• he supported Franco’s fascist rebellion in Spain 

• Appeasement: Britain and France followed an appeasement policy in hopes of avoiding war by conceding to some of Hitler’s demands, most notably in the Munich Agreement of 1938

• Hitler saw the democratic powers as unwilling to confront his aggression

• Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact: In 1939, Hitler signed the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact with the Soviet Union. This non-aggression agreement allowed Hitler to invade Poland without fear of Soviet interference

• triggered Britain and France to declare war on Germany

• U.S. Isolationism and Neutrality Acts:  The U.S., traumatized by World War I, adopted an isolationist policy in the 1930s. Congress passed the Neutrality Acts, which aimed to prevent American involvement by banning arms sales and prohibiting travel on belligerent ships. 

• Battle of Bulge

• The largest and bloodiest single battle fought by the United States in World War II

• Fought in the Ardennes region of Belgium

• Hitler aimed to split the Allied forces and capture the vital port of Antwerp

• The Allies, led by General Dwight D. Eisenhower, were able to defeat the Germans

• The battle marked the beginning of the end for Nazi Germany as their forces were weakened and forced to retreat

• The last major offensive attempted by the Axis powers on the Western front

• Battle of Midway

• The Battle of Midway (June 1942) was a naval battle between U.S. and Japan in the Pacific Theatre

• The U.S. Navy, under Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, intercepted Japanese plans to attack the Midway Atoll.

• The U.S. ambushed the Japanese fleet, sinking four aircraft carriers

• 317 United States sailors, airmen, and marines were killed

• 3,000 Japanese sailors and airmen killed

• Six months after Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor and one month after the Battle of the Coral Sea

• The Japanese Combined Fleet under the command of Isoroku Yamamoto 

• Hiryu's dive-bombers damaged the USS Yorktown

• A Japanese submarine torpedoed the Yorktown while it was being salvaged, causing it to sink on June 7 

• FDR’s policies- 4 Freedoms; Good Neighbor

• Freedom of Speech: The right for every person to express their views without fear

• Freedom of Worship: The right for everyone to worship according to their beliefs

• Freedom from Want: The right for everyone to access basic economic necessities

• Freedom from Fear: The right to live free from aggression and violence

• These freedoms were created by FDR in his 1941 State of the Union address

• Good Neighbor Policy:  

• In 1933, Roosevelt repudiated previous interventionist policies in Latin America

• The U.S. withdrew military forces from countries like Haiti and Nicaragua

• Internment camps

• During World War II, the United States forcibly relocated and incarcerated about 120,000 people of Japanese descent 

• operated by the War Relocation Authority

• There were 10 Internment camps

• Gila River War Relocation Center, Arizona

• Granada War Relocation Center, Colorado (AKA "Amache")

• Heart Mountain War Relocation Center, Wyoming

• Jerome War Relocation Center, Arkansas

• Manzanar War Relocation Center, California

• Minidoka War Relocation Center, Idaho

• Poston War Relocation Center, Arizona

• Rohwer War Relocation Center, Arkansas

• Topaz War Relocation Center, Utah

• Tule Lake War Relocation Center, California - largest Internment camp

• About two-thirds were U.S. citizens.

• These individuals were forcibly relocated to internment camps, where they faced harsh conditions and the loss of civil liberties

• In 1988, the U.S. government issued an official apology and paid reparations to survivors

• Zoot suits riots

• The Zoot Suit Riots occurred in 1943, primarily in Los Angeles, between Mexican American youths and white servicemen. The youths wore outfits that consisted of a broad-shouldered drape jacket and balloon-leg trousers

• During World War II, the production of clothing was limited and closely regulated, and according to soldiers, the zoot suits used too much cloth

• White soldiers and sailors attacked Mexican Americans and other minorities in the streets

• Lack of response from authorities

• Zoot-suiters referred to themselves as pachucos

• Post War conferences

• Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin met in Tehran, Iran in 1942 and at the Yalta conference in the Soviet Union in 1945 to develop agreements.

• The Allies agreed on the post-war division of Germany into occupation zones, established the framework for the United Nations, and acknowledged Soviet influence in Eastern Europe.

• The last “Big Three” conference occurred at Potsdam, outside Berlin, in July 1945 and involved Stalin, Truman, and Churchill.

• There, Allied leaders created a military administration for Germany and agreed to try Nazi officials for war crimes. None of the three great Allied powers entirely trusted the others, and each vied for geostrategic advantage.

• The Allies’ decision to delay the invasion of Europe cost many Russian lives on the eastern front and incited Soviet resentment, but their sacrifice persuaded Britain and the United States to allow the Soviet Union to dominate eastern Europe.

• At Yalta, Roosevelt and Churchill barely protested Stalin’s plans to control areas of eastern Europe that had been part of the Russian empire before World War I

• Holocaust

• The Holocaust was the systematic genocide of six million Jews and millions of Romani people, disabled people, gay men, people of color, and political prisoners.

• Adolf Hitler, leader of the Nazi party 

• Heinrich Himmler: Head of the SS, responsible for overseeing the death camps

• Himmler & Eichmann were responsible for orchestrating the Holocaust

• Josef Mengele, a notorious doctor who performed inhumane experiments at Auschwitz

• Warsaw Ghetto Uprising began after German troops and police entered the ghetto to deport its surviving inhabitants

• The "Final Solution," the plan to exterminate Jews, which led to mass killings in concentration camps 

• Major camps were Auschwitz-Birkenau, where over 1 million people were killed, Dachau, the first concentration camp, and Treblinka, an extermination camp where 850,000 people died

• End of WWII- important ‘Victory’ days

• Victory in Europe (V-E Day):  May 8, 1945

• Hitler killed himself, Soviet troops took Berlin, and on “Victory in Europe” day, the war against Germany ended

• Adolf Hitler’s suicide forced Germany to surender 

• Victory in Japan (V-J Day): August 15, 1945 

• The official surrender was signed on September 2, 1945

• On August 6, 1945, a U.S. plane dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, Japan. It virtually destroyed the entire city and killed 70,000 immediately.

• Three days later on August 9th, the United States dropped a second bomb on Nagasaki that killed 70,000.

• The same day, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan and invaded Manchuria

• Japan quickly surrendered

• The decision to drop the bombs remains controversial