§ Interstate Highway & Defence System Act 1956 -> authorizes building of national highway system: 41,000 miles + targeted at defence making easier to move troops around

o Conservative Limits

§ Cuts taxes for wealthy & businesses

§ Opposed national health insurance

§ Shows limited initiative on civil rights

4. Renewing Conservatism: Libertarians & Evangelicals

- Emergence of more radical forms of conservatism

o 1. Commitment to state 2. Desire to increase social welfare division 3. Take place in context of Lib CAP

- Two strains of Conservative thought

o New Conservatism (Kirk, Weaver):

§ Emphasised moral & spiritual renewal

§ Believed state should help restore virtue & counter COM

o Libertarianism (Freidman, Rand)

§ Valued free market as basis of individual liberty

§ Opposed regulation, taxes, welfare as threats to competition

- Evangelical Revival

o 1960s = 63% of Americans belonged to Church/ Synagogue

o Billy Graham led mass religious rallies became spiritual advisor to Eisenhower, Nixon, LBJ

o Evangelicalism gained cultural & political clout

5. Time for Change: Civil Rights & the “Middle Way”

- Eisenhower’s Civil Rights Record

o Favored slow, consensual change in the South – seen as very passive by CR advocates

o Growing activism & landmark events pressured federal response

- Key Civil Rights Moments

o Brown vs Board of Education 1954

§ SC overturned ‘separate but equal’

§ Eisenhower was responsible to force but refused to endorse & stayed quiet

o Emett Till 1955

§ Lynched at 14 in Mississippi

§ People responsible for murder were caught, equated

§ Open-casket funeral & media coverage drew national attention to racial violence

o Montgomery Bus Boycott 1955-56

§ Sparked by Rosa Parks, led my MLK

§ Lasted over a year, drove bus service to near bankruptcy

- Federal Actions

o Little Rock 1957: Eisenhower sends federal troops to enforce desegregation

o Civil Rights Act 1957: 1^st such law since Reconstruction aimed to protect AA voting rights, though largely symbolic

6. The Torch has Passed: 1960 Elections

- JFK’s Symbolism & Strategy

o Embodied generational change, modernity, glamour

o Catholic background helped challenge/ weaken anti-Catholic sentiment

§ Gave speech emphasizing church-state separation

§ Positioned religious tolerance as part of US identity

- Political Rise

o From prominent well connected Irish Catholic family

o House of Reps 1946 + Senate 1952

o Family has deep ties to FDR’s DEM Party

- Balanced Ticket with LBJ

o JFK: young, N, urbane

o LBJ: older, S, legislative heavyweight

- CW Messaging

o Claimed a ‘missile gap’ with USSR

o Accused Eisenhower-Nixon of weakness, especially amid Cuba’s shift towards COM

- 1960 election = very close

o Wins in pop vote 49.9% vs 49.6%

o Black vote is crucial – bolstered by his call to Coretta King (MLK wife) during jailing

- JFK Impact

o Represented youth, vigor, charisma, promise of new US era

7. New Frontier, or failed promise?

- FP Focus

o Prioritized CW crises

§ Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961): Failed CIA backed mission to overthrow Castro

§ Cuban Missile Crisis (1962): Major standoff with USSR; resolved peacefully

- Geopolitical Shifts

o Misjudged new global realities

§ Tensions between USSR & China

§ Resurgent of EU Economies

§ Decolonisation & Nationalism upsurge in the ‘3^rd world’

- Peace Corps & Soft Power

o Extending US aid programmes + encourage non-aligned countries to lean more to Lib CAP + US

- Domestic Policy Shortcomings

o Welfare state doesn't expand

o Federal education & health reforms stalled

o Civil rights: cautious & ambiguous early on -> avoided proposing major CR legislation

- Congressional Gridlock

o Southern DEM blocked reforms

o Submits 355 legislative requests , only half passed

Foreign Policy: Containing Communism in Korea, Cuba & Vietnam

1. Korea

- 1945: End of WWII – KOR divided at 38^th parallel between Soviet (N) & US (S) occupation zones

- 1949: Both Soviet + US forces withdraw, leaving behind 2 rival govs -> both heavily armed + ideologically opposed

- Strategic Context

o Truman Doctrine 1947

§ US pledges aid to any nation threatened by COM, establishing global moral & strategic commitment

§ Becomes foundation of CW FP

o Containment Strategy

§ Central US doctrine: COM must be contained, not appeased

o Appeasement Lessons

§ Lessons from 1930s (Hitler): Avoid appeasing dictators like Stalin, be willing to act decisively

- 25th June 1950: NK invades SK, crossing 38^th parallel

o General MacArthur authorized to provide US air & naval support; later ground troops deployed

o UN Security Council backs intervention (SU absent during vote), forming a multinational force (though US forces outnumber 10:1)

o Initial success: UN forces liberate Seoul

o MacArthur ignores warnings:

§ Pushes beyond 38^th parallel towards Chinese border

§ Invades deep into NK, prompting Chinese intervention

o Chinese troops push UN forces back South- leads to military stalemate/ war of attrition

- MacArthur vs Truman

o MacArthur pressures Truman to bomb China & blockade ports

o Truman refuses – prioritizes EU over AS escalation

o MacArthur publicly criticizes Truman, eventually relieved of command

o Speech to Congress rallies support but highlights growing divide in US over war

- Domestic Impact

133,000 US casualties; war drags on for 3 years until armistice in 1953
War becomes deeply unpopular; seen as unwinnable & costly
First televised war: public sees reality of war directly -> contributes to disillusionment
Known as ‘forgotten war’ -> overshadowed by WWII & Vietnam
Begins critiques of US FP adventurism

2. Cuba: Bay of Pigs & Prelude to Crisis

- Context: JFK & CW FP

o During 1960 campaign, JFK criticizes Nixon & Eisenhower, claiming US is falling behind in arms race (missile gap)

o Advocates for ‘flexible response’: expanding US military capabilities to respond to any COM threat, not just with nuclear weapons

- Cuban Revolution

o Fidel Castro overthrows US backed Batista regime in 1959

o Initially ambiguous ideological stance, but US sees Castro as threat: COM foothold in W hemisphere

- Bay of Pigs Invasion April 1961

o CIA plan from Eisenhower era: train & equip Cuban exiles to overthrow Castro

o JFK reluctantly approves plan

§ Exile troops land in Cuba

§ Failed to destroy Cuban air force; invasion expected & quickly crushed 1st stage failed as didn't knock out Cuban airpower + knew US invasion was going to take place

§ Defeated 3 days after landing

- Major failure for JFK

o Undermines US credibility

o Drives Cuba into SU orbit for protection

o JFK accused of being soft on COM & pursuing morally compromised FP

3. Cuban Missile Crisis

- Why did Soviets Place Missiles in Cuba

o Khruschev saw JFK as inexperienced & weak (Post Bay of Pigs)

o Wanted to:

§ Defend Cuba from another US invasion

§ Close missile gap by placing weapons in striking range of US

§ Response to US missiles in ITA & TURK, in striking distance of Moscow

- Crisis Escalates

o Soviets being secretly shipping missiles & 42,000 troops to Cuba

o US intelligence detects activity; JFK must act quick (18-20 days) with limited options Dispatched on ships to Cuba -> take 18-20 days

o 1) Nothing -> appears weak + SU lied about existence of missiles on Cuba

o 2) Negotiate with SU -> risk SU stalling to finish installations + JFK would look weaker

o 3) Airstrikes/ground invasion to remove missiles-> could spark nuclear war

o 4) Blockade of Cuba & prevent more weapons arriving -> + provide SU without immediate escalation

- Resolution

o 22^nd Oct: JFK announces blockade; demanding removal of missiles

o 24th Oct: SU ships turn back

o Private communication between JFK & Khrushchev

§ USSR agrees to remove missiles in exchange for: US pledge not to invade Cuba + Removal of US missiles from TURK

- Aftermath

o Seen as FP success for JFK: firm but diplomatic, offered SU a way out w/o escalation

o Avoided nuclear war while protecting US strategic interests

o Leads to:

§ Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty 1963

§ Establishment of direct ‘hotline’ between DC & Moscow

o Boosts anti-nuclear movements in US

§ Women Strike for Peace

o Triggers cultural & artistic critiques of US militarism & CW logic

4. Vietnam

- Background

o Vietnam divided at 17^th parallel after FR withdrawal

o US supports South Vietnam as part of containment

o 1955-61:$800mil in US aid goes to S Vietnamese Army

- Escalation under JFK

o Rise of Viet Cong (VC)- Southern Vietnamese COM insurgents

§ Rooted in peasantry population, seen as nationalists, not foreign invaders

§ Supported by North Vietnam

o JFK reluctant to send troops but increased economic + military aid

o President Diem (SV) proves unpopular; assassinated in 1963 with tacit US approval

- LBJ & Vietnam Trap

o Fear of appearing weak of losing AS (MacArthur’s warning)

o LBJ doesn't want to be President that steps away from Vietnam

- US Military Failures

o Underestimated enemy; couldn’t adapt to guerrilla warfare

o Alienated Vietnamese population: Agent Orange, My Lai Massacre

o Heavy bombing 3.2 millions tons of explosions yielding no strategic success

- Domestic Fallout

o War is disproportionately affecting US society

§ Young (avg age 19), WC (80%), AA (12.6%)

o Televised coverage

§ Showed brutality of war

§ Fueled anti-war movement & fractured DEM party

o LBJ refused to run 1968

- Cultural Dissent & Civil Rights Links

o Muhammed Ali

§ April 1967 refused draft

§ Response: stripped of heavy weight title + sentence to 5 years in prison

§ Overturned on appeal -> gives series of interviews as to why won't fight

o MLK Jr – links CR & Vietnam War in 1967 speech: war fought by poor & disenfranchised

- 1968 Turning Point

o Tet Offensive

§ Surprise attack by VC & NVA shatters illusion that was is nearly won

§ War seen as unwinnable

§ MLK Assassinated

- Long Term Legacy

o Vietnam becomes cautionary tale in US FP

§ Creates lasting Vietnam Syndrome – reluctance to engage militarily overseas

§ Shapes US D-M for decades

“The Chimes of Freedom”: the 1960s, Civil Rights and the New Left(s)

1. LBJ & the Great Society

- Context:

o Presidential Transition

§ LBJ assumed presidency unexpectedly after JFK assassination 1963

§ Feels deep sense of inferiority & remains in JFK’s shadow; the 2 had starkly contrasting personalities & leadership styles

o The South

§ LBJ’s S Roots proved politically advantageous in JFK’s election campaign but contributed to LBJ’s sense of being an outsider to the Liberal, Northern political establishment

§ Known for extraordinary effectiveness in congress- particularly skilled at bipartisan deal-making, including with Republicans

o ND Roots

§ Grew up in rural poverty in Texas, which informed his political philosophy & understanding of socio-economic issues

- The "Great Society"

o Driven by convergence of personal conviction, political opportunity, & national trauma after JFK’s death

o Initially pushed through JFK-era legislation

o Congress becomes more willing after his assassination to pass acts

§ Revenue Act (1964) - tax cuts to stimulate personal consumption & economic growth

§ Higher Education Facilities Act (1963) – Federal funding to expand university infrastructure

o Core goals

§ Broad, inclusive agenda addressing poverty, inequality & discrimination

§ Framed around racial justice & civic inclusion – “colour & church are not bars to inclusion in the Great Society”

o Civil Rights Act (1964)

§ Landmark legislation prohibiting racial discrimination in employment & in public/ private institutions

§ Enabled federal withholding of funds from agencies engaged in discriminatory practices

§ Created Equal Employment Opportunity Commission to combat discrimination based on race, religion, sex

· Notably, inclusion of gender was initially intended to by opponents to derail the bill but passed nonetheless

o Voting Rights Not Yet Addressed

§ CR activists saw voting rights as critical omission

§ Southern states retained control over voter eligibility, perpetuating voter suppression

- Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP)

o Background

§ Official MS DEM Party was white only, segregationist institution

§ In 1964, CR activists (white Lib DEM + AA) founded MFDP, aiming to be recognised as MS legitimate delegation at the DEM National Convention in Atlantic City

o Televised Credential Hearings

· Fannie Lou Hamer delivered harrowing TV testimony detailing the violence she faced for registering black voters

· LBJ refused to fully endorse MFDP, fearing broader Southern walkout

· Compromise allowed 2 MFDP members into the delegation; this was rejected by MFDP, who walked out in protest

2. 1964 Election

· LBJ vs Goldwater

o Goldwater = Author of The Conscience of a Conservative (1960), symbol of emerging right-wing conservatism

o Advocated for

§ States rights: viewed by critics as coded language for racial exclusion

§ Radical shrinking of Fed Gov: called for abolition of income tax & dismantling of welfare programs

§ Opposed 1964 CR Act, despite supporting earlier legislation – argued it gave fed gov too much power over employment practices

o FP:

§ Called for more aggressive CW posture, including nuclear options in Vietnam -> alarming to many Americans

o LBJ’s Response

§ Launched first televised attack ad (the “Daisy ad”), portraying Goldwater as dangerous extremist

o Outcome

§ Goldwater won only 6 states; LBJ won a historic landslide, maintained support from CR activists

3. The Radical 1960s: Political + Cultural battlefield

· Black Power Movement

o Expansion of the Great Society

§ Medicaid & Medicare: Health coverage for elderly & low-income individuals

§ War on Poverty: Major domestic intervention targeting systemic exclusion from ND benefits

· Job training, early childhood education, health services targeted towards disadvantaged communities

§ Voting Rights Act (1965) – eliminated racial discrimination in voting practices

o Persistent Inequalities

§ 25% of AA children lived in poverty

§ AA unemployment rate was double national average

§ Argument 1960s in expansion of US wealth + thriving econ -> AA miss out

o Rise of Militancy

§ Urban unrest & riots (1964-68), peaking after MLK’s assassination

§ Government often resorted to military force to restore order

o Diverse Responses within Black Power

§ Malcom X: Advocated Black nationalism, rejected integration & non-violence

§ Stokely Carmichael

· Founder of Student Non-violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC); later rejected interracial & non-violent strategies

· Promoted Pan-Africanism – unity among Black people globally

§ Black Panther Party (1966, Oakland CA)

· CA had open carry laws (people allowed to carry loaded weapons as long as visible)

· Armed self-defense against brutality

o In response to police brutality, groups of AA banded together to monitor police violence & do so armed

o CA tries to remove open carry laws to prevent this from happening

· Committed to Pan-Africanism

· Community programs: free breakfasts, education, healthcare

· New Left

Universities as Political Hubs
- 1960s universities were elite spaces; most didn’t attend
- Expansion driven by federal funding & post-WWII baby boom
Defining the New Left
- Not aligned with traditional COM or ND Liberalism
- Critique of Affluent Society: argued that consumerism led to spiritual & psychological degradation
- Sought deeper authenticity & participatory DEM
Intellectual Influences
- C Wright Mills emphasized the role of radical intellectuals in developing left
- Herbert Marcuse, One Dimensional Man (1964):
  - Argued CAP soc represses human potential
  - Compared consumerist conformism to totalitarian control
  - Warned against obsession with material abundance

· Feminism

Shared Themes with Black Power & New Left
- Common language: Power, self-determination, identity
Ideological Shift -> 'Second wave' feminism
- Moved beyond legal equality to redefine what constitutes political issues – sex, beauty standards, bodily autonomy
Key Text
- Betty Friedan, The Feminine Mystique (1963)
  - Critiqued domestical ideal for MC women
  - Material comfort is being extended to women but not necessarily a good thing - corroding women's potentials to exercise individuality
  - Compares to being in a concentration camp (controversial)
Reproductive rights & 'consciousness raising'
- Grassroots activism centered on abortion & reproductive rights
- Women met in small groups to share experiences – politicizing the personal & expanding the boundaries of political activism

Crisis, Scandal, and the Media: Nixon’s Presidency

Conservative Decade: Young Americans for Freedom

Post-Goldwater Conservatism
- Barry Goldwater’s 1964 campaign laid ideological groundwork for new conservative movement

Focus on critique of permissiveness & identity-based rights claims

Key figure: William F Buckley Jr.
- Author, intellectual, journalist; founded National Review promoting conservative/libertarian views
- Hosted Firing Line, expanding conservative intellectualism
- Helped found YAF (1960)
Sharon Statement (1960)
- Foundational document of YAF
- Fusionism: blend of moral conservatism (religious) with economic libertarianism
- Gov should regulate morality, but stay out of economic life
  - Key positions
    - Implicit opposition to CR -> focused on state’s rights
    - Anti gov -> especially in economic life
    - Anti COM -> push for stronger action against COM
  - Reagan joins YAF advisory board 1962

John Birch Society

Founded 1958; John Birch was a US Baptist Minster seen as 1^st martyr in anti-COM struggle
Key beliefs
- Anti-COM
- Anti-Liberal -> conspiratorial view of US politics
- CR movement = front for COM
- Welfare state = vehicle for COM
Strategy
- Grassroots activism: petitions, lobbying, letter-writing
- Sensationalism: extreme claims to provoke response or rejection

Conservativism & Education

Grassroots conservatives saw education as a cultural battleground
Theme: decline in Christian values = root of moral permissiveness
Mel & Norma Gabler (Texas)
- Founded "Education Research Analysts"
- Rated textbooks based on adherence to Christian values
- Focused on
  - Evolution -> promoting religious interps of evolution
  - Original intent of US constitution -> originalism
  - Respect for Juedo-Christian morals
  - Emphasis on abstinence in sex education
Alice Moore - Kanawha County, W VA
- Opposed revised English curriculum & sex education
- Organized school boycott; campaign escalated (bombs planted, intimidation of parents who sent kids to school)
- Reflected broad conservative coalition & local control of curricula

Key Conservative Grievances
- Loss of Christian moral standards in schools -> led to permissiveness
- Anti-COM tied to secularism
- Too much gov intervention in wrong areas
Influences on Politics
- Local community based rather than national -> locate the decline of W in 1 issue
  - Offer sensational comment
  - Intimidate people who disagree
  - Form coalitions with other rights/ groups

1968 Election

Democratic divided over Vietnam War
- Bobby Kennedy, then assassinated
- LBJ - decides not to run again
- Humphrey gains support
1968: Year of Turmoil
- DEM Convention in Chicago -> violent clashes between police & anti-war activists
  - Class divide police (older, WC), protestors (younger, MC)
- Tet Offensive: Reveals war is unwinnable
- Assassinations: Bobby Kennedy, MLK
Richard Nixon’s Return
- Had lost in 1960 (presidency) & 1962 (CA Gov)
- Blamed reason for loosing on liberal media
- Returns as a candidate of ambiguity
  - “Peace with honor” in Vietnam
  - Law & Order -> targets unrest in urban (often AA) areas
  - Southern Strategy: appeals to white backlash against CR
Third party candidate: George Wallace
- Segregationist former Democrat from Alabama
- Wins 5 states in Deep South - strong for 3rd party candidate
Nixon Victory
- End of Democratic dominance in South
- Organised labour begins breaking from DEM leadership

Nixon in Power

Foreign Policy
- Experienced from Eisenhower era (as VP)
- Maintains Anti-COM agenda in AF, AS, L AM
- Pursues détente with SU & China
  - Recognizes tensions between China & SU -> opportunity to divide them
  - 1^st President to visit China -> part of broader ending Vietnam war strategy
- Still support repressive regimes
  - Chile: supports economic sabotage of Allende -> eventual death
  - RSA -> white minority govs are stronger against COM than black majority gov
  - Iran -> continuities strong funding leading to poisoned relations going forward

· Domestic Policy: "Nixonian" Conservatism

· Fiscal Conservatism in Rhetoric, but not in action

o Claims to support balanced budget

o Actually escalates bombing in Vietnam + space race -> largest deficit in US history

· New international economic order

o W EU + JP = reemerging as major international economic hubs

· 1971 - 1st time in 30 years, US imports more than exports

o Inflation rises -> imposes temporary freezes on wages, prices, rents

· Oil crises

o Israel vs Egypt War prompts Arab oil embargo on US-> economic chaos

· Continued Liberalism despite Rhetoric

o Family Assistant Programme – guaranteed income for families

· Doesn't pass congress - very radical vision for conservative

o New Federalism – redistributes tax revenue to states

o Expands:

· Social security

· Medicare

· Pell grants

· Housing subsidies

· Creates EPA, NOAA

o Contradiction: conservative in speech, liberal in policy

Culture Wars & Courts
- Frustrated Conservatism
  - Liberal SC Decisions
    - Furman vs Georgia: death penalty unconstitutional in current form
    - Roe vs Wade: legalizes abortion nationwide
- Affirmative Action
  - Despite conservative base, Nixon pushes desegregation in South
  - Implements affirmative action in hiring & education

“Government is Not the Solution”: Ronald Reagan and the New Right"

Before Reagan: Ford & Post-Watergate Era

Gerald Ford (1974-77)

Image: honest but not highly intelligent, positioned as a healing figure after Nixon
Day Ford takes over - declares "long nightmare (watergate) is over"
- Language: effect to draw line under Watergate crisis
Pardons Nixon (Sept 1974): Saying he’d suffered enough- controversial; seen as avoiding accountability

Recognizes need to clean up US politics -> Political Reforms
- Amends Federal Election Campaign Act 1974- created Federal Electoral Commission
- Introduced public financing of campaigns – try to equalize campaign funds
- Failed: Rise of PACs circumvented donation limits; 1976 SC struck down act on free speech grounds
General sense:

See’s DC as needing to clean up its act
Revealed illegal FBI/ CIA activities -> permanent oversight committees created

Economic struggles
- Stagflation (low growth + high unemployment + inflation), reliance on foreign oil
1976 election
- Faced criticism from both parties
- Challenged by Reagan for DEM nomination (unsuccessful)
- Ford faces Carter
- Carter has sense of distance from Washington -> able to capture coalition voters
- Lost narrowly to Carter

Jimmy Carter (1977-81): Outsider with Challenges

1976 - popular vote 50.1% to 48%
- Outsider image, moral leadership rooted in Christianity
- Benefited from national cynicism post-Watergate/ Vietnam

Universal rightward shift in policy
- Signifies shift away from willingness to spend in name of social reform since FDR
- Significant: idea need to spend to address social deprivation as way of dealing with poverty is placed under scrutiny
- Confronted by econ situation demonstrates willingness to cut spending & frugality in gov
- Tax cuts & deregulation -> seen in aviation & banking

Governance problems
- Difficult relationship with Congress; inconsistent policymaking
- As an outsider he appealed to electorate but lacked links with Congressional leaders
  - Had a strong sense of moral purpose underpinned by Christianity which many found hard to work with

Economic Policy
- 1^st in office - invests $14mil in public works programs & tax cuts
  - Unemployment drops but inflation surges
- Reversed course: slashed federal spending, tightened money supply
- Result: continued inflation + rising unemployment = stagflation
  - External shock to economy that's unset balance: Energy Crisis

· Energy Crisis

o Creates Dept of Energy - tasked with trying to reduce US reliance on imported oil

o National Energy Act 1978 - encouraged conservation to reduce # of goods that use gas & provides incentives for energy saving

o Access to oil remains crisis for much of 1970s/80s

· Summer of 1979 = 60% US petrol stations closed

Foreign Policy
- Enters office being led by moral purpose - makes point that in recent history US presidents have acted in ways that don’t reflect well on US
- Human rights language (ARG, CHIL, RSA) but inconsistent (S KOR, PHIL) -> where US interests are dominant
- Carter Doctrine: US will defend Persian Gulf interests militarily (reflects energy crisis)
- Soviet Invasion of AFG: Sanctions on USSR; US boycotts Olympics

Iran Hostage Crisis (1979-80): failed rescue mission -> further national humiliation

1980 election

Carter = most unpopular president ever been -> many DEMs think he should step aside

Ronald Reagan & the New Right

Background
- Actor, sports presenter, former New Deal Democrat -> turned staunch conservative
- Emerges during Goldwater Campaign 1964
- Gov CA 1966 – pragmatic on taxes, liberal abortion laws, environment
1980 Victory
- Reagan wins 51% popular vote to Carters 41%
- Landslide electoral college: 489 vs 49
- Shows right-wing takeover national discourse
New Conservative Coalition
- 1) New Christian Right

Protestant, religious conservatives - motivated by anxiety of declining moral standards in US
Used media & direct mail to mobilize voters
Anti- feminism, anti-abortion, anti-gay rights, pro-family values
2) 'Traditional' Conservatism
- Focused on limited gov & continuing fight against COM abroad

Turning point: 1980

Reagan redefined US politics -> REP now sets national agenda
DEM shift right in response (Clinton 1990s)
Part of globalized rightward shift away from welfare state & post-war liberalism

Reaganomics: Free Market Revolution

Core Idea: 'economic freedom'
- Contra to FDR-LBJ’s safety-net vision provided by infrastructure, Reagan saw gov as the problem
- Believed infrastructure hindered free enterprise
Tax Policy
- Economic Recovery Tax Act (1981)
- Tax Reform Act (1986)
  - Top tax rate slashed from 70% to 28%
  - Tax cuts on business rates, capital gains, inheritance
  - Ended progressive tax system
Deregulation: Sherman Antitrust Act
- Health & safety; PACTO -> trade union of air traffic controllers
  - Broke legal clause: prohibiting legal workers from striking
  - August 5th- fires all of them -> blacklisted from fed employment
  - Crisis: shortage of air traffic controllers; calls in army
  - Acts as symbol of what he's like as president -> decisive
Deficit
- Despite rhetoric on spending cuts, federal deficit tripled (1981-1986)

Polarised 1980s: Winners & Losers

Post 1983 boom: Growth returns but benefits unequally shared
1980s: sharp income inequality
- 18% of full-time workers lived below the poverty line.
- US had highest poverty rate among industrialized nations (11.7-13.5%).

Rolling back the Radical ‘60s?

Deregulation = Undermining Liberal Gains
- Opposed affirmative action programs (promoted colour-blind policies)
- Ethnic minorities & women continue to face opportunity gaps
- Affirmative action: target whites
Judicial Appointments
- Appoints 1/2 federal judges + 3 SC justices
- Favoured originalism/ strict interpretation -> rightward SC shift
  - Conservative stances on abortion/ discrimination/ death penalty
Opposing ERA
- ERA passed Congress in 1970s but failed final ratification by 1982
- Phyllis Schlafly led grassroots campaign to kill ERA

Conservatism, 9/11 & Ending US Century

Reagan's 2nd Term (1984-89)

Economic Recovery & 1984 Election
- By 1984, US entered period of economic growth
  - Falling unemployment
  - Modest inflation
  - Booming stock market
- Republican's enter election optimistic: DEM’s were divided
  - Walter Mondale (DEM) campaigned on growing inequality under Reagan's 1st term
- Reagan's message: national prosperity & renewed US confidence is focused on prosperity
  - Projected strength & optimism in contrast to Vietnam War & Iran Hostage crisis legacy
- Result: Landslide Victory
  - Reagan won 49 states to 1
  - Majority of US society backed Reagan – except AA
  - Highlighted dominance of conservatism & emergence of Reagan Democrats (traditional DEMs who voted REP)
  - However, despite win, Reagan’s admin faced growing challenges
Domestic Challenges & Scandals
- Budget deficit became major concern
  - Bipartisan attention led to Gramm-Rudman Hollings Act (1985)- automatic spending cuts to reduce deficit
- Challenger disaster (1986): NASA shuttle explosion marred what was to be its busiest year
- DEM regained Senate seats, limiting Reagan’s legislative power
- Scandals & “Sleaze”
  - Not directly tied to Reagan, but members of his administration
  - Savings & Loans Crisis, corruption in Dept. of Housing & televangelist Jim Bakker’s scandals (highlighting hypocrisy & moral decline)
  - Questions arose about whether deregulation & emphasis on individuals fueled a culture of greed
AIDS Crisis & Gay Rights
- By 1989, over 45,000 US died from AIDS
- Shift in activism
  - From privacy rights (individual liberty) to equality in the world place (public activism)
  - Leading with privacy is very private mission, but leading with equality is much more prideful & positive mission -> galvanizes gay pride movement

The Evil Empire & Foreign Policy

Reagan sought to restore pride in US FP
- Criticized Nixon’s détente
- Ramped up defense spending- $216 bn/ year vs $158bn in Carter
Strategic Defense Initiative (1983)
- ‘Star Wars’ missile defense plan: critics warned it would escalate arms race
FP ethos
- 'New CW' posture, supporting R-W govs & leftist insurgencies
  - Interventions in Grenada, Afghanistan, Angola, RSA, El Salvador, Nicaragua
Paradox
- Despite being CW warrior, his admin oversaw a major thawing of CW tensions

1. Developed positive personal relationship with Gorbachev -> held multiple summits

On visiting Moscow, Reagan stated USSR was no longer the ‘evil empire’

2. Soviet economy is failing

Couldn’t maintain military spending & meet domestic needs
Gorbachev pursued reforms (glasnost & perestroika)

Iran-Contra affair
- Scandal revealed US had sold arms to Iran (despite an embargo) to secure hostage release in Lebanon
- Profits secretly funneled to Contra rebels in Nicaragua – known for human rights abuses
- Reagan claimed ignorance & was not directly implicated, but the scandal:
  - Poisoned relations with allies
  - Undermined public trust
  - Seen by many as more consequential than Watergate

Post-Reagan Business as usual?

Neo-Liberal Consensus
- Reagan succeeded by George HW Bush & Bill Clinton
- Despite party differences, both embrace neoliberalism
  - Deregulation, privatization, reduced gov spending
  - Emphasis on free marks & family values, resisting rights-based social claims
Welfare & Trade
- Both Bush & Clinton were skeptical of welfare:
  - Viewed as expensive, bloated, encouraging dependency
  - Clinton shifted rhetoric rightwards: e.g. “ "2 years and you’re off"
- Pro-globalization
  - Committed free markets being essential for growth, security, prosperity -> looking to remove restriction on int trade
  - NAFTA (eliminated trade tariffs in North AM)
  - GATT (updated 1994-liberalise global trade)
  - Critiques saw this as enshrining US hegemony & facilitating outsourcing
  - Rise of anti-globalization movement as resistance
Clinton’s “Third Way Fusion”
- Social lib: Supported progressive social policies including abortion rights, LGBT rights, anti-discrimination efforts
- Economic Conservatism: Focused on deficit reduction welfare reform, free trade, reflecting a conservative fiscal approach
- Epitomised Third Way politics- blending left & right
Key Policies
- EITC (Earned Income Tax Credit): Expanded program; provides tax breaks to low-income workers. Pro-work, anti-poverty policy — aligning with liberal goals (helping the poor) but using market-based incentives (rewarding work)
- Health Care 1993-94: Attempted a major health care reform aimed to provide universal coverage, but was technocratically complex, met with strong resistance & failed.
Economic Paradox
- 1990s economy: strong growth, low unemployment, tech innovation
- But inequality widened:
  - Wealth gains concentrated at the top
  - Stagnant real wages & rising job insecurity

Scandal
- Monica Lewinsky scandal -> impeachment by House of Reps 1998

2000 Election: Bush vs Gore

Al Gore (Clinton's VP): ran on prosperity + environmental, tax reform
George W Bush: “Compassionate conservative”, focused on tax cuts, education reforms
Character over Policy
- Gore - stiff, boring, arrogant
- Bush - more relatable, but questioned his intelligence
Contested Election:
- Gore won Popular Vote 48.4% – 47.8%; but lost Electoral College 267 – 271
- Outcome hinged on FL's 25 electoral votes
  - Problems: flawed ballots ( “butterfly ballot”), machine errors, voter roll issues
- US SC, in Bush v. Gore (December 12, 2000), stopped recounts in a 5–4 decision, awarding FL & presidency to George W. Bush
Voter Suppression: Felony Disenfranchisement
- Laws barred felons from voting -> disproportionality impacted AA & L AM voter
A Divided America
- Revealed & deepened stark sociopolitical divisions
- South vs. North: S strongly for Bush (Republican), N supported Gore (Democrat)
- Center vs. Coasts: Interior, rural states Republican, coastal, urbanized Democratic
- City vs. Country: Urban tended to support Gore; rural leaned toward Bush
- Whites vs. Minorities: Whites favoured Bush; AA, L AM, AS overwhelmingly supported Gore
- Men vs. Women: women more likely to vote for Gore; men leaned slightly toward Bush.
- College Degrees vs. Those Without: Voters with higher education tended to vote Democratic, a trend that has grown in later years.

Compassionate Conservatism: George W Bush

Distancing from Radical Right in GOP
- Sought to soften Rep image, moving away from tone of religious right, culture wars
- Aimed to broaden party’s appeal, especially to moderates, minorities, suburban voters - emphasised empathy, inclusion, social responsibility, alongside conservativism
Religion & Social Policy
- Bush believed religious orgs played crucial role in addressing social problems of poverty, addiction, homelessness
- White House Office of Faith-Based and Community Initiatives (2001)
  - Allowed federal funding for church-led social programs
  - Sparked debate about church-state separation
Tax Cuts
- Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act (2001):
  - Cut individual income tax, reduced estate tax, increased child tax credits
  - Aimed to stimulate economy after dot-com bust and support MC families
- Jobs and Growth Tax Relief Reconciliation Act (2003):
  - Lowered capital gains & dividend taxes, increased expensing for businesses.
Criticism
- National debt rose: tax cuts + war + new domestic spending
- Weakening Environmental regulation- Kyoto Protocol
  - Global agreement aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change
  - Signed by Clinton but not ratified by senate
  - Bush rejects it -> says would hurt US economy
- No Child Left Behind (2002)
  - Major education reform law

o It aimed to:

o Raise academic standards,

o Increase accountability through standardized testing,

o Identify and support underperforming schools,

o Though it had noble goals, NCLB was criticized for:

o Teaching to the test,

o Punishing schools without adequate support,

o And placing unfunded mandates on states

The American Century: 1900-2001?

Unilateralism & the Bush Doctrine
- After 9/11, Bush turned US FP decisively to preemptive strikes, not just deterrence
- Key components:
  - "Axis of Evil": Bush’s 2002 State of Union speech labelled Iraq, Iran, NK as major threats -> authoritarian states allegedly supporting terrorism & seeking WMDs
  - From Deterrence to Pre-emption:
    - CW doctrine focused on deterrence: preventing attack by threatening massive retaliation.
    - Bush admin claimed “shift” to pre-emption: striking threats before they materialize (e.g., Iraq 2003).
Debate: Decline or Novelty?
- Did events after 2001 mark decline of US power or continuation of a uniquely US moment of influence?
1) Decline of W power - David Held
- Iraq & Afghanistan wars:

Prolonged, costly, and damaging to US credibility.
Sparked anti-US sentiment, weakened alliances, and exposed the limits of U.S. power.

Rise of Multipolar World:

Rise of China, India, and regional powers marked end of unipolar dominance
Power became more distributed globally, especially economically

International Gridlock:

Institutions like UN, WTO, and IMF struggled to address major crises effectively
US leadership often bypassed multilateral diplomacy.

Side-lining Arbitration:

U.S. increasingly rejected international legal norms (refusing to join ICC, withdrawing from Kyoto Protocol).

New Economic Powers:

BRICS nations gained influence, challenging U.S.-led financial and trade systems.

Complexity:

Global challenges; climate change, terrorism, & cybersecurity couldn’t be solved unilaterally

2) Continuing Liberal Battle - Robert Kagan
- Robert Kagan argues U.S. dominance continued, even after 2001.
- Quote: “When the world danced to an Olympian America's tune” - evokes idea that US still led global norms, values, and institutions.
- Kagan sees US as actively shaping world order, defending Lib DEM against threats
- Even amid controversy, US actions in Mid E were framed as part of a moral mission spreading freedom, security, and market liberalism.