PSYCHOLOGY FINAL STUDYGUIDE

1. How does your textbook define social psychology? According to the lecture, why is social psychology described as the “scientific study” of human thinking and behavior?

   • Textbook definition: Social psychology is the scientific study of how individuals think, feel, and behave in social situations.

   • Lecture explanation: Social psychology is considered "scientific" because it uses empirical methods and controlled experiments to understand how people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the presence of others, both real and imagined.

2. According to the lecture, what important historic event prompted a surge of research in social psychology? In what decade did social psychologists become interested in and conduct research in aggression?

   • Historic Event: The World Wars (particularly WWII) significantly influenced the development of social psychology, as psychologists sought to understand group behavior, prejudice, and aggression.

   • Aggression research: Interest in aggression surged in the 1950s and 1960s, especially after WWII, as social psychologists began exploring how aggression could be studied experimentally and understood in social contexts.

3. According to the textbook, lecture, and PowerPoint slides, how is social psychology different from sociology and from personality psychology?

   • Social Psychology vs. Sociology: Sociology studies groups and societies as a whole, while social psychology focuses on individual behavior within a group context. Social psychology looks at how society influences the individual, while sociology focuses more on the structures and functions of society.

   • Social Psychology vs. Personality Psychology: Personality psychology focuses on individual differences, while social psychology focuses on how social situations and group dynamics affect behavior, regardless of individual traits.

4. Name and describe the “big ideas” in social psychology described in your textbook and in the lecture. According to the lecture, which of the big ideas did the results of the study on the grudge match between Princeton and Dartmouth (Loy and Andrews, 1981) best demonstrate?

   • Big Ideas:

     • The power of the situation: Social behavior is heavily influenced by social context.

     • Social influence: How others affect our behavior, attitudes, and perceptions.

     • The role of cognitive processes: How we interpret and perceive social information.

     • The importance of the self: Understanding how individuals perceive themselves in relation to others.

   • Study (Princeton vs. Dartmouth): The results from this study demonstrated the idea of social perception and bias—how people's interpretations of events can be biased based on their group membership.

5. Define and explain what is known as the hindsight bias. Provide some examples of the hindsight bias and explain why people are prone to believe that findings in social psychological research are just “common sense.”

   • Hindsight Bias: The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that we would have predicted it all along (the “I knew it all along” effect).

   • Examples: After a sports game, fans might claim they knew the winning team was going to win. In research, people might feel that the results of a study were obvious after the fact.

   • Why common sense: People often feel that once something is explained, it seems obvious and predictable, which leads them to believe social psychological findings are just "common sense."

6. Describe Kurt Lewin’s field theory presented in class. What are the major tenets of field theory? You should know the very simple but elegant formula of field theory provided on your PowerPoint slide and explained in lecture.

   • Lewin’s Field Theory: Lewin proposed that behavior is a function of the person (P) and the environment (E), formulated as:
     B=f(P,E)B = f(P, E)B=f(P,E)
     This means that an individual's behavior is a result of the interaction between their personal characteristics and the environment.

   • Key Tenets:

     • Behavior is influenced by both the person and their environment.

     • The environment includes the social and psychological context in which people operate.

7. A study in 1940 found that 54% of Americans thought the United States should “forbid” speeches against democracy but 75% thought it should “not allow” them. Which of the following best explains these differences: The order of questions, the response options, or the wording of the questions?

   • Explanation: The wording of the questions. The slight difference in wording ("forbid" vs. "not allow") can lead to different interpretations and responses.

8. Why did the Literary Digest incorrectly predict that Alf Landon would defeat Franklin Roosevelt in the 1936 presidential election? What was the major flaw of the survey?

   • Flaw: The survey had a sampling bias. It was conducted by mailing out questionnaires to a list of people who had previously subscribed to the magazine, which was not representative of the general population. This led to a skewed prediction, as Roosevelt’s supporters were less likely to have subscribed to the magazine.

9. What is naturalistic observation? Provide an example.

   • Definition: Naturalistic observation involves observing people or animals in their natural environment without any manipulation or intervention.

   • Example: Observing how children play in a playground or how animals interact in the wild.

10. What are the advantages of correlational research? What is the primary disadvantage of correlational research?

• Advantages: Correlational research allows researchers to identify relationships between variables without manipulating them. It is useful for studying real-world phenomena where manipulation is not possible or ethical.

• Disadvantage: Causality cannot be determined. Correlation does not imply causation, meaning that even if two variables are related, one may not cause the other.

Chapter Two and Lecture

1. Describe the study by Gallup that examined self-awareness in non-human animals. What were the results of the study? Which groups were able to pass the “mark test” and recognize themselves in the mirror?

   • Study Description: Gallup’s study involved placing a mark on non-human animals where they couldn’t see it without a mirror. If the animal touched the mark after seeing itself in the mirror, it was considered self-aware.

   • Results: Great apes (chimpanzees, orangutans, gorillas) passed the test, while other animals like dogs and cats did not.

2. According to research by Lewis and Brooks-Gunn presented in the lecture, between what ages does self-recognition typically emerge in the majority of humans?

   • Age Range: Self-recognition typically emerges between 18-24 months in humans.

3. Describe what Cooley meant by the term “looking-glass self” as explained in the lecture.

   • Looking-Glass Self: Cooley’s concept refers to the idea that individuals form their self-concept based on how they believe others perceive them, like seeing oneself reflected in a mirror.

4. Define and describe the self-reference effect as explained in lecture and on your PowerPoint slide. Describe the study on the self-reference effect presented in lecture in which participants were asked to recall a list of adjectives describing either themselves or a friend. What were the results of the study?

   • Self-Reference Effect: The tendency to remember information better when it is related to oneself.

   • Study: Participants who were asked to think about how adjectives described themselves had better recall than those who thought about how the adjectives described a friend.

5. What is the spotlight effect? Provide an example of the spotlight effect.

   • Spotlight Effect: The tendency to overestimate how much others notice and pay attention to our appearance or behavior.

   • Example: After a minor mistake (like spilling a drink), you might feel like everyone is focusing on it, even though they likely aren’t.

   Chapter 4 and Lecture

   1. How does your book and lecture define attitude? Describe the difference between implicit and explicit attitudes.

      • Definition: An attitude is a favorable or unfavorable evaluation of an object, person, event, or issue.

      • Implicit vs. Explicit:

        • Explicit attitudes are those we consciously endorse and can report (e.g., "I like chocolate").

        • Implicit attitudes are unconscious and automatic (e.g., an unconscious bias towards a particular group).

   2. What are the ABCs of attitudes as described in lecture and included on your PowerPoint slides? Describe and explain the differences between affectively based, behaviorally based, and cognitively based attitudes and provide an example for each.

      • The ABCs of Attitudes:

        • Affective component: Emotional reaction (e.g., feeling happy when seeing a friend).

        • Behavioral component: How attitudes influence behavior (e.g., helping someone when you like them).

        • Cognitive component: Beliefs or thoughts about the object (e.g., believing chocolate is good for your health).

      • Types of Attitudes:

        • Affectively based: Based on emotions (e.g., liking a person because they make you feel happy).

        • Behaviorally based: Based on actions (e.g., donating to a charity because you believe in its cause).

        • Cognitively based: Based on thoughts or beliefs (e.g., thinking exercise is important for health).

   3. Describe the study by LaPierre conducted in 1934 that was described in lecture. What were the results of the study and what did the results suggest about the relationship between attitudes and behaviors?

      • Study: LaPierre traveled with a Chinese couple and found that despite many establishments expressing anti-Chinese attitudes, they still served the couple.

      • Results: Attitudes (e.g., anti-Chinese sentiments) did not always align with behavior (serving the couple).

      • Conclusion: Attitudes do not always predict behavior.

   4. According to lecture, what did the review of literature conducted by Alan Wicker (1969) reveal about the relationship between attitudes and behavior? Did Wicker find that attitudes were a strong, moderate, or weak predictor of behavior?

      • Wicker’s Review: Wicker found that attitudes were a weak predictor of behavior. People do not always act in line with their stated attitudes.

   5. What did Festinger’s Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (1964) have to say about the relationship between attitudes and behavior? According to this theory, do attitudes predict behavior or does behavior predict a change in attitudes?

      • Cognitive Dissonance: According to Festinger’s theory, when there’s a conflict between attitudes and behavior, people will change their attitudes to align with their behavior to reduce discomfort (dissonance).

      • Behavioral Influence: Behavior can influence and change attitudes, especially when there’s a discrepancy between the two.

   6. Describe and explain the principle of aggregation as described in lecture. Provide an example to support your answer.

      • Aggregation Principle: This principle suggests that while a single behavior may not reliably predict an attitude, when we aggregate many behaviors over time, they can offer a more reliable prediction of attitudes.

      • Example: If a person consistently donates to charity over time, it’s likely they have a positive attitude toward helping others.

   7. Describe the Implicit Association Test (IAT) and how it has been used to measure implicit attitudes on sensitive subjects such as prejudice as discussed in lecture. What are the criticisms of the IAT that were presented in lecture and described in your textbook?

      • IAT: The IAT is a tool used to measure implicit attitudes by tracking the speed at which people associate different concepts (e.g., good vs. bad with race or gender).

      • Criticisms:

        • The IAT might not measure actual attitudes, but rather, it could reflect familiarity or cultural associations.

        • It can be influenced by factors like mood or prior experience, making the results potentially unreliable.

   8. Discuss how bringing attitudes to mind is more likely to predict behavior. Include in your answer the study by Snyder and Swann (1976) described in lecture and in your textbook in the section “Bringing Attitudes to Mind.”

      • Snyder and Swann Study: Participants were more likely to act in line with their attitudes when they were prompted to think about their attitudes before engaging in a behavior. This shows that bringing attitudes to mind can guide behavior.

   9. Discuss how making a person “self-aware” can increase the correspondence between attitudes and behavior. Include in your answer the study by Diener and Wallbom (1976) as explained in lecture and in your textbook in the section “Bringing Attitudes to Mind.” In which condition were participants less likely to cheat?

      • Diener and Wallbom Study: Participants who were made self-aware (e.g., looking in a mirror) were less likely to cheat compared to those who weren’t made self-aware. This shows that self-awareness increases the likelihood of behavior matching one’s attitudes.

   10. Read the section in your textbook “When Attitudes are Specific to Behavior.” According to research presented in your book and in lecture, under what conditions will an assessment of an attitude be most likely to predict a specific behavior?

       • Specificity: Attitudes are most likely to predict behavior when they are specific to the behavior being studied (e.g., attitudes toward voting are more likely to predict voting behavior than general political attitudes).

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   Chapter 5 and Lecture

   1. Briefly describe Darwin’s theory of evolution. What is natural selection?

      • Darwin’s Theory: Darwin’s theory of evolution suggests that species evolve over time through the process of natural selection, where traits that increase survival and reproduction are passed down to future generations.

      • Natural Selection: It’s the process by which traits that are advantageous for survival and reproduction become more common in a population over time.

   2. According to modern anthropology, from what continent did all humans originally evolve?

      • Origin: All humans are believed to have originally evolved in Africa.

   3. According to Brown (1987), what two functions do formal and informal forms of “you” found in some languages serve?

      • Functions:

        • Formal “you”: Used to show respect, politeness, or social distance.

        • Informal “you”: Used in casual, familiar, or intimate settings.

   4. According to your textbook, how does a person’s social status predict who is more likely to initiate a relationship to a less formal level, such as suggesting they be called by their first name?

      • Social Status: People with higher social status are more likely to initiate the use of first names and less formal relationships, while people of lower status typically wait for the higher-status individual to take that step.

   5. According to your textbook, what are the five universal dimensions of social beliefs reported by Leung and Harris Bond (2004)?

      • The five dimensions are:

        1. Social cynicism

        2. Social complexity

        3. Reward for application

        4. Spirituality

        5. Tendency to assume the world is just

           Cognitive biases that influence decision-making in social contexts.

Chapter 5 and Lecture (cont'd)

6. How does verbal and nonverbal behavior differ between men and women during conversation? What has research revealed about differences in phone conversational styles between men and women?

   • Verbal and Nonverbal Differences:

     • Men tend to be more direct and goal-oriented in conversations, often focusing on information exchange.

     • Women tend to be more expressive, affiliative, and cooperative, often using conversation to build relationships.

   • Phone Conversation: Research suggests that women tend to engage in longer, more emotionally expressive conversations on the phone, while men may keep conversations shorter and more task-focused.

7. How do the conversational styles of men and women differ with regard to staring, smiling, interrupting, and talking assertively?

   • Staring: Women tend to make more eye contact during conversations, while men may use less.

   • Smiling: Women smile more frequently than men.

   • Interrupting: Men are more likely to interrupt during conversations, especially in mixed-gender interactions.

   • Talking Assertively: Men generally talk more assertively, often dominating discussions, while women may adopt a more passive or collaborative conversational style.

8. As a general rule, are men or women better at accurately decoding others’ emotional messages?

   • Women tend to be better at decoding emotional cues, particularly nonverbal cues like facial expressions and body language. This has been linked to greater empathy and socialization patterns.

9. According to lecture, what are the “caveats” that need to be considered when trying to understand documented gender differences?

   • Caveats: Gender differences in behavior are not universal or fixed. They are often influenced by cultural norms, socialization, and context. It's important to avoid stereotyping and to consider the role of individual differences.

10. How do males and females differ biologically with respect to height, body fat, muscle, sensitivity to smells, and sounds?

    • Height: Males tend to be taller on average.

    • Body Fat: Women typically have higher body fat percentages.

    • Muscle Mass: Men generally have more muscle mass than women.

    • Sensitivity: Women tend to have heightened sensitivity to smells and sounds compared to men.

11. How do males and females differ in verbal, math, and visual-spatial abilities?

    • Verbal Abilities: Women tend to have better verbal abilities (e.g., language skills, reading comprehension).

    • Math Abilities: Men and women tend to perform similarly in math overall, but men often outperform in higher-level math, especially in competitive environments.

    • Visual-Spatial Abilities: Men typically outperform women in tasks requiring visual-spatial skills (e.g., mental rotation of objects).

12. According to lecture, how do males and females differ in their reactions to stress?

    • Reactions to Stress:

      • Women are more likely to engage in tend-and-befriend behaviors, such as seeking social support.

      • Men are more likely to engage in fight-or-flight responses, focusing on action or avoidance.

13. Describe the study by David Buss in which he examined the traits males and females preferred in mate selection. What traits in females did males rank the highest? What traits in males did females rank the highest?

    • Study by David Buss: Buss surveyed individuals from multiple cultures to identify mate preferences.

    • Males: Preferred physical attractiveness, youth, and health in females.

    • Females: Preferred traits like social status, resources, and ambition in males.

14. What is the evolutionary explanation for the gender differences in mate selection?

    • Evolutionary Explanation: Evolutionary psychology suggests that men and women have different reproductive strategies. Men prioritize traits that signal fertility and health (e.g., youth, attractiveness), while women prioritize traits that signal the ability to provide resources and protect offspring (e.g., status, ambition).

15. Explain the concept of psychological androgyny.

    • Psychological Androgyny: Androgyny refers to the blending of traditionally masculine and feminine traits within an individual. People who are psychologically androgynous exhibit both high levels of femininity and masculinity, and this can be linked to greater psychological well-being.

16. What are the differences in empathy and decoding non-verbal behavior?

    • Empathy: Women tend to score higher in empathy than men. This includes both emotional empathy (feeling what others feel) and cognitive empathy (understanding others' emotions).

    • Decoding Non-Verbal Behavior: Women are generally better at interpreting non-verbal cues, such as facial expressions and body language.

17. What are the gender differences in the expression of emotions? To what does the term toxic masculinity refer?

    • Expression of Emotions: Women tend to express emotions more openly and frequently, while men may suppress emotions due to societal norms.

    • Toxic Masculinity: Toxic masculinity refers to harmful cultural norms and behaviors associated with traditional masculinity, such as emotional suppression, aggression, dominance, and the devaluation of traits deemed "feminine."

Chapter 6 and Lecture

1. How is conformity defined?

   • Conformity: Conformity is the tendency to change one's behavior or beliefs in response to real or imagined pressure from others.

2. Describe the study by Sherif using the autokinetic effect. Did group norms emerge because of normative influences or because of informational influences?

   • Sherif’s Study: Participants were asked to estimate how much a light moved (autokinetic effect) in a dark room. Over time, participants' estimates converged.

   • Group Norms: The results were due to informational influence, where participants changed their answers because they relied on others' judgments as a source of information.

3. Describe the original study on conformity conducted by Solomon Asch. What percent of participants conformed on at least one critical trial? What percent of answers on critical trials were conforming answers?

   • Asch's Study: Participants were shown a line and asked to identify the line that matched its length. When confederates gave incorrect answers, participants conformed.

   • Conformity Rate: 75% of participants conformed at least once, and about 33% of answers on critical trials were conforming.

4. What is the minimum and maximum number of people needed to produce conformity effects?

   • Minimum: Conformity effects can begin with as few as two other people.

   • Maximum: The effect plateaus with about three to four people; beyond this, additional people have little effect on conformity rates.

5. According to lecture, was conformity in the Asch study due to normative or informational influences?

   • Conformity in Asch's Study: The conformity was primarily due to normative influence, where participants conformed to fit in or avoid standing out, even though they knew the answer was wrong.

6. In what way do men and women differ on measures of conformity?

   • Gender Differences: Women generally show higher levels of conformity than men, particularly in situations involving social influence or peer pressure.

7. According to research by Berry (1998) presented in lecture, how do the Eskimo of Canada and the Temne of Sierra Leone differ in their tendency to conform and why?

   • Eskimo vs. Temne: The Temne (a collectivist culture) showed higher conformity due to a greater emphasis on cooperation and group harmony, while the Eskimo (a more individualistic culture) exhibited lower conformity.

8. According to a study conducted by Williams and Sogon (1984) included in your PowerPoint presentation, were Japanese students more likely or less likely than American students to conform on the Asch conformity test and why?

   • Japanese Students: Japanese students were more likely to conform than American students, reflecting the greater collectivism in Japanese culture.

9. Anthony Pratkanis replicated Asch’s original conformity study in 1998 at UC Santa Cruz. What were the results of his study?

   • Replication Study: Pratkanis found that conformity rates were similar to Asch’s original study, suggesting that normative pressures continue to influence behavior even in modern contexts.

Chapter 7 and Lecture

1. What is the definition of persuasion provided in your textbook?

   • Persuasion is the process by which a message induces change in beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors. It involves attempting to influence others in a way that encourages them to adopt certain ideas or actions.

2. Describe Petty & Cacioppo’s Elaboration Likelihood Model of persuasion. What are the essential differences between the central route to persuasion and the peripheral route to persuasion? Provide an example for each.

   • Elaboration Likelihood Model: This model suggests that there are two main routes through which persuasion can occur: the central route and the peripheral route.

     • Central Route: Involves deep processing of the message, where the audience carefully considers the content and arguments. It leads to more lasting attitude change. Example: A person reading a detailed article about the benefits of climate change policies.

     • Peripheral Route: Involves shallow processing, where the audience is influenced by superficial cues like attractiveness or the speaker's credibility. Example: A person buys a product because a famous actor endorses it, without much thought about the actual product quality.

3. Define credibility. According to the lecture and your textbook, what are the two traits that are associated with the expertise of a communicator?

   • Credibility: The believability or trustworthiness of a source. It depends on two main traits:

     • Expertise: The communicator's knowledge, experience, and skills related to the subject.

     • Trustworthiness: The communicator’s perceived honesty and reliability.

4. On judgments of fact, do credible sources or similar others have the greater influence? Describe the study by Susanne Guabe and her colleagues presented in your textbook. Which persuasive strategy was most effective in persuading people in a hospital to use hand sanitizer?

   • Credible Sources vs. Similar Others: Research shows that credible sources often have a greater influence on judgments of fact. The study by Susanne Guabe found that credible sources, such as health professionals, were more effective in persuading hospital staff to use hand sanitizer compared to strategies involving similar others or peers.

5. What are the traits associated with trustworthiness? According to the lecture, what are the factors that increase perceived trustworthiness?

   • Trustworthiness Traits: Honesty, integrity, reliability, and fairness.

   • Factors Increasing Trustworthiness:

     • Perceived lack of ulterior motive: The person appears to be unbiased or not trying to sell something.

     • Consistency of message: A person who presents themselves consistently is often seen as more trustworthy.

     • Similarity to the audience: Communicators who share values with the audience are often perceived as more trustworthy.

6. Imagine that you are preparing a speech to convince an uninvolved and/or uninformed audience to support world hunger relief. Would you be more effective to use reason and logic or would an emotional appeal be more effective?

   • Emotional Appeal: For an uninvolved or uninformed audience, an emotional appeal is often more effective. This is because emotional appeals can quickly grab attention, generate empathy, and motivate action, especially if the audience is not already deeply knowledgeable or invested in the issue.

7. How effective are fear appeals in persuasive appeals? Describe some of the anti-smoking campaigns described in your textbook. Which were more effective: information-only campaigns or those that provided graphic images?

   • Fear Appeals: Fear appeals can be effective when they evoke strong emotions, but they need to include a solution to the problem. Campaigns with graphic images (e.g., pictures of diseased lungs) were more effective in promoting anti-smoking behavior compared to those that just presented factual information.

8. What would be the best way to persuade an involved, well-informed audience to accept a message: Using a vivid one-sided appeal with no factual information or using a two-sided message that also addresses the other side of the issue?

   • Two-sided message: For an informed and involved audience, using a two-sided message is more effective. It acknowledges the other side's perspective and refutes it, showing the communicator is knowledgeable and balanced.

9. As a general rule, are fear appeals an effective means of persuasion? Describe some of the studies on the persuasive effects of fear that are included in your textbook. Include in your answer the importance of including a solution in a fear-arousing appeal.

   • Fear Appeals: Fear appeals can be effective, but only if they provide a way to reduce the fear (i.e., a solution or action). Studies show that if the fear is too intense or if no solution is provided, people may avoid the message altogether or become defensive.

10. Sometimes, providing too much fear-arousing information can backfire. According to Aronson, what psychological reaction may kick in if a persuasive message includes too much fear?

    • Backfire Effect: According to Aronson, psychological reactance may occur, where individuals become defensive and reject the message because they feel their freedom to make decisions is being threatened.

11. Describe the study that attempted to get women to get their annual mammograms. Which persuasive strategy was the most effective in persuading women to get their annual exam: A positively-framed message or a fear-framed message?

    • Mammogram Study: The study found that a positively-framed message, which emphasized the benefits of getting a mammogram (e.g., health benefits, reassurance), was more effective than a fear-framed message.

12. Describe the field study by Farquhar et al. (1977) that focused on reducing the frequency of heart disease included in the “Personal versus media influences” section in your textbook. Which campaign strategy was most effective?

    • Farquhar Study: The most effective campaign strategy involved personal contact with individuals, rather than just media-based information. Personal messages from doctors or health professionals had a greater impact on encouraging people to reduce heart disease risks.

13. Describe the study by Asch (1946) in which participants read a description of John. How did the order of the traits describing John affect their evaluation of him and why? Include a discussion of the primacy and recency effect in your answer.

    • Asch's Study: The order in which traits were presented influenced participants' perceptions of John. When positive traits were listed first, John was viewed more favorably (primacy effect). When negative traits were listed last, they had less impact (recency effect). This shows that information presented first tends to have a stronger impact than information presented later.

14. According to lecture, can subliminal persuasion radically affect or alter a person’s behavior or cause them to do something that is out of character or that they would not ordinarily do?

    • Subliminal Persuasion: Research suggests that subliminal persuasion has minimal impact on behavior. It may influence attitudes in very subtle ways, but it does not cause people to do things that are drastically out of character or contrary to their normal behavior.

15. Describe the research conducted on cult indoctrination presented in lecture. What are the persuasive tactics used to indoctrinate new members? What are the traits of people who are most vulnerable to cult indoctrination?

    • Cult Indoctrination: Cults use persuasive techniques such as love bombing (excessive affection), isolation, and a tight-knit community to create dependency on the group. Individuals who are most vulnerable tend to have low self-esteem, are in periods of personal crisis, or lack strong social support systems.

16. Describe the study by Reagan (1971) presented in lecture. What principle of persuasion explains why the participant in the “favor” condition bought more raffle tickets than the participant in the control condition?

    • Reagan Study: The reciprocity principle explains the results. In the "favor" condition, participants who received a small favor (e.g., a Coke) were more likely to return the favor by buying more raffle tickets.

17. What are the “elements of cult indoctrination” as described in lecture and included on your PowerPoint slide?

    • Elements of Cult Indoctrination: These include isolation, conformity pressure, mind control techniques, and the creation of a strong in-group identity.

18. Describe the following “weapons of influence” of persuasion identified by Cialdini and the underlying principles that make them effective strategies of influence as described in the lecture: The reciprocity norm, liking, commitment and consistency, the scarcity principle, social proof, and authority. Provide an example for each.

    • Reciprocity Norm: People feel obligated to return favors (e.g., if someone gives you a gift, you feel compelled to reciprocate).

    • Liking: We are more likely to comply with requests from people we like or find similar to us (e.g., salespeople who build rapport).

    • Commitment and Consistency: Once people commit to something, they are more likely to stick with it (e.g., people who sign a petition are more likely to donate).

    • Scarcity Principle: People value things that are scarce (e.g., "limited time offer" on products).

    • Social Proof: People tend to follow the actions of others, especially in uncertain situations (e.g., following the crowd in a new restaurant).

    • Authority: People are more likely to obey authority figures (e.g., wearing a uniform increases compliance).

Chapter 8 and Lecture

1. Describe the research on social facilitation. Under what conditions will the presence of others facilitate performance and under what conditions will the presence of others hinder performance? Include in your answer a discussion of dominant and non-dominant responses.

   • Social Facilitation: The presence of others can enhance performance on well-practiced or dominant tasks but hinder performance on complex or unfamiliar tasks. Dominant responses are those that are easy or automatic, while non-dominant responses are more complex or require more effort.

2. Describe the study by Michaels et al. (1982) presented in lecture. How did the presence vs. absence of observers affect pool players’ performance during a game of pool?

   • Michaels et al. Study: The study found that skilled pool players performed better in the presence of others, while novice players performed worse in the presence of others. This illustrates social facilitation, where the presence of others enhances performance on tasks people are already skilled at but impairs performance on tasks they find difficult.

3. What is social loafing? Provide an example. Do people always engage in social loafing? According to your textbook, what are some of the factors or conditions that minimize social loafing?

   • Social Loafing: Social loafing is the tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working in a group than when working alone. Example: A person contributing less to a group project because they feel others will pick up the slack.

     • Minimizing Factors: Making individual contributions identifiable, fostering a sense of group cohesion, and increasing group accountability can reduce social loafing.

4. How does social loafing vary according to culture? Include in your answer the differences between individualistic and collectivist cultures.

   • Social Loafing and Culture: Social loafing tends to be more common in individualistic cultures, which emphasize personal achievement and independence. In these cultures, individuals are less likely to take responsibility for group tasks. On the other hand, collectivist cultures, which prioritize group goals and interdependence, tend to experience less social loafing, as individuals are more motivated by a sense of duty to the group.

5. What is deindividuation? According to your textbook, how and why does a loss of self-awareness and evaluation apprehension combine to result in deindividuation?

   • Deindividuation: Deindividuation refers to the loss of self-awareness and reduced concern for social evaluation that occurs in group settings, leading individuals to behave in ways they would not normally do. This happens because the anonymity of being part of a group reduces accountability, and the heightened arousal from the group setting can lead to impulsive or deviant behavior.

6. Describe the study by Ellison & Govern (1995) discussed in your textbook. Who was most likely to honk aggressively at someone stopped at a green light? What did the study reveal about aggression and anonymity?

   • Ellison & Govern Study: The study found that drivers who were in anonymized situations (such as being in a large city or wearing dark sunglasses) were more likely to exhibit aggressive behavior, such as honking at someone stopped at a green light. This suggests that anonymity can reduce personal accountability, leading to more aggressive actions.

7. Describe the research by Stoner on the so-called “risky shift” effect. Do groups always make riskier decisions than individuals?

   • Risky Shift Effect: Stoner's research found that groups tend to make riskier decisions than individuals. However, this effect does not always occur; in some cases, groups may make more cautious decisions depending on the situation or the composition of the group. For instance, if group members are highly cautious, the group may opt for safer decisions.

8. What is group polarization? Provide an example. What underlying processes help to explain the occurrence of group polarization? Describe how informational and normative influences explain group polarization.

• Group Polarization: Group polarization refers to the tendency for group discussions to lead to decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclinations of group members. For example, if a group of people initially feels somewhat positive about a certain issue, after discussing it, they might collectively adopt a more extreme position.

  • Informational Influence: When individuals in a group hear new arguments or information that strengthens their initial opinions, it pushes the group toward more extreme views.

  • Normative Influence: Individuals may also adopt more extreme positions in order to align with the group and gain approval.

16. According to your textbook, how can virtual groups, isolation, news feeds, etc., explain how the internet as a source of information may cause group polarization and for misinformation to be accepted as fact?

• Virtual Groups & Group Polarization: The internet can facilitate group polarization by creating echo chambers—spaces where people are only exposed to opinions that align with their own. This isolation can reinforce extreme views and lead to misinformation being accepted as fact because individuals are less likely to encounter differing perspectives that challenge their beliefs.

11. According to Janis’s explanation of groupthink, what are the three categories of groupthink and the symptoms that fall under each category as explained in your textbook, lecture, and PowerPoint slides?

• Janis’s Groupthink Categories:

  • Overestimation of the Group: Members believe the group is infallible and can do no wrong.

    • Symptoms: Illusion of invulnerability, unquestioned belief in the group’s morality.

  • Closed-Mindedness: The group becomes resistant to alternative viewpoints.

    • Symptoms: Rationalization of decisions, stereotyping outgroup members.

  • Pressure toward Uniformity: There is pressure on members to conform and not express dissenting opinions.

    • Symptoms: Self-censorship, illusion of unanimity, direct pressure on dissenters, mindguards (protecting the group from dissenting opinions).

12. Describe the following leadership styles included in your textbook: Task leadership, social leadership, and transformational leadership. Are effective leaders more likely to have task leadership, social leadership, or have a combination of both leadership styles?

• Task Leadership: Focuses on organizing tasks, setting goals, and ensuring efficient completion of work.

• Social Leadership: Emphasizes teamwork, motivation, and maintaining positive relationships among group members.

• Transformational Leadership: Inspires and motivates followers by creating a vision, setting high expectations, and fostering innovation.

• Combination of Styles: Effective leaders often possess a combination of task and social leadership skills. They can organize and motivate a team while maintaining good group cohesion and morale.

13. Describe the field experiment conducted by Worringham and Messick (1983) presented in your textbook and lecture. In what condition did joggers run faster?

• Worringham & Messick Study: In this experiment, joggers ran faster when they were being observed by others, suggesting the effect of social facilitation. The presence of others, whether real or implied (e.g., a person watching), can enhance performance in simple or well-practiced tasks like running.

Chapter 9 and Lecture

1. Define prejudice. Define/explain the ABCs of prejudice, i.e., the affective, behavioral, and cognitive components, as provided in your textbook and lecture.

   • Prejudice: Prejudice is a negative attitude toward a group and its members, based on their membership in that group.

     • Affective Component: The emotional aspect of prejudice, such as feelings of dislike or hatred.

     • Behavioral Component: The tendency to act in discriminatory ways toward members of the prejudiced group.

     • Cognitive Component: The beliefs or stereotypes about the group (e.g., generalizations about their characteristics).

2. Explain the differences between implicit and explicit attitudes and how the Implicit Association Test measures implicit attitudes. How well do IAT test scores predict prejudicial behavior? Is the predictive power of the test scores strong, modest, or weak?

   • Implicit Attitudes: Unconscious, automatic attitudes or stereotypes that individuals may not be aware of. They can be measured using the Implicit Association Test (IAT), which assesses the speed with which individuals associate different concepts (e.g., "black" with "good" or "bad").

   • Explicit Attitudes: Consciously held beliefs and attitudes that individuals are aware of and can report.

   • IAT Predictive Power: The predictive power of the IAT is generally considered modest. It can predict automatic biases, but it is less effective at predicting overt prejudiced behavior.

3. Describe and explain the group-serving bias as described in your textbook? Provide an example.

   • Group-Serving Bias: This is the tendency for people to attribute positive behaviors or outcomes of their ingroup to internal causes (e.g., their skill or effort) and negative behaviors or outcomes to external factors (e.g., bad luck or circumstances). Conversely, negative behaviors or outcomes of an outgroup are attributed to internal causes (e.g., laziness or incompetence). Example: A sports team might attribute their success to hard work but blame a loss on poor weather conditions.

4. Describe the traits of the authoritarian personality presented in lecture.

   • Authoritarian Personality: This personality type is characterized by a rigid adherence to conventional values, respect for authority, and a tendency to be prejudiced against outgroups. People with this personality are more likely to conform to traditional beliefs and hold negative views toward those who are different.

5. According to social categorization theory, how do people divide their social world? Describe and explain the outgroup homogeneity effect.

   • Social Categorization Theory: This theory suggests that people naturally divide their social world into groups, typically in terms of ingroup (those we identify with) and outgroup (those we perceive as different from us). This categorization is often automatic and can influence perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors toward others.

   • Outgroup Homogeneity Effect: This refers to the tendency to perceive members of an outgroup as more similar to each other than they actually are, whereas we see greater variability among members of our ingroup. For example, people may believe that all members of an outgroup (e.g., people from another country) have the same traits or characteristics, while recognizing more differences among individuals within their own group.

6. Describe and explain the confirmation bias. How can the confirmation bias explain how stereotypes and prejudice develop and are maintained?

   • Confirmation Bias: This is the tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs, while disregarding or undervaluing information that contradicts those beliefs.

   • Stereotypes and Prejudice: Confirmation bias helps maintain stereotypes and prejudices by leading people to focus on instances that confirm their biases (e.g., if someone believes that a certain group is lazy, they may pay more attention to instances where individuals from that group seem lazy). This process reinforces negative stereotypes and prejudiced views, making them harder to change.

7. Describe the results of a 2015 survey on gay marriage conducted by the Pew Research Center. Which generational cohort had the most positive attitudes toward gay marriage?

   • 2015 Pew Research Center Survey: The survey found that younger generations, particularly Millennials, had the most positive attitudes toward gay marriage. In contrast, older generations, such as Baby Boomers and Silent Generation members, were generally less supportive of gay marriage. This finding reflects broader shifts in social attitudes toward LGBTQ+ rights over time.

8. Describe the major tenets of the frustration-aggression hypothesis. Discuss how competition may fuel frustration.

   • Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis: This theory posits that frustration—being blocked from achieving a goal—leads to aggression. According to this hypothesis, aggression is often a result of being unable to reach a desired outcome, and frustration can increase the likelihood of hostile actions toward others.

   • Competition and Frustration: When groups or individuals are in competition for limited resources (e.g., jobs, land, or power), frustration can build as people perceive their goals to be thwarted by others. This competition can increase aggression, particularly toward outgroup members who are seen as competitors.

9. Describe scapegoat theory of prejudice and the role that frustration plays in this theory. Describe the study by Hovland & Sears presented in class. What were the results of the study?

   • Scapegoat Theory: This theory suggests that when individuals or groups experience frustration, they often displace their aggression onto an easier target (the scapegoat). The scapegoat is typically a minority or outgroup that is perceived as weak or vulnerable.

   • Hovland & Sears Study: This study found that frustration over economic hardships (such as crop failure) led to increased prejudice and hostility toward African Americans. Specifically, as the price of cotton dropped, white farmers in the South became more prejudiced toward African Americans, blaming them for their frustrations.

10. Describe realistic group conflict theory of prejudice and the role that frustration and competition for scarce resources plays in the theory. Include some of the historical examples provided in your textbook, lecture, and PowerPoint slides.

    • Realistic Group Conflict Theory: This theory posits that prejudice arises when groups compete for scarce resources, such as jobs, land, or political power. This competition leads to intergroup hostility and negative stereotypes about outgroups. As groups vie for the same resources, they come to see each other as rivals, and prejudice emerges as a way to justify their group's position.

    • Historical Examples: Examples include the conflict between Native Americans and European settlers over land and resources, or the competition between African Americans and whites during the Civil Rights Movement for economic opportunities.

11. What are the tenets of Social Identity Theory? Describe Tajfel’s experiment using the minimal group design. What is the “ingroup bias”?

    • Social Identity Theory: This theory argues that people derive part of their self-esteem from the groups they belong to. As a result, individuals favor their ingroup (the group they identify with) and hold prejudiced views toward outgroups (those they perceive as different from themselves).

    • Tajfel’s Experiment: In Tajfel’s minimal group design, participants were randomly assigned to one of two groups based on trivial criteria, such as preference for certain paintings. Even with minimal group distinctions, participants showed a strong preference for members of their own group, giving them more rewards than members of the other group.

    • Ingroup Bias: This refers to the tendency to favor members of one's own group over those in an outgroup. In Tajfel's experiment, participants favored members of their ingroup, even though the groups were arbitrary.

12. What were the results of the study conducted by Cialdini presented in class that examined the relationship between group identity and self-esteem? Did the results of the study support or refute social identity theory and why?

    • Cialdini’s Study: Cialdini’s study examined how group identification affects self-esteem. The study found that participants who identified more strongly with a winning sports team were more likely to wear the team's gear or express pride in the team's victory. This supports Social Identity Theory, as it shows that people’s self-esteem is tied to the success of their ingroup.

13. A study of Western Europeans found that economically frustrated people exhibit more hostility toward minority groups than people who are not economically frustrated. What theory of prejudice best explains the results of this study?

    • Realistic Group Conflict Theory: This theory best explains the results of the study. Economic frustration creates competition for resources, and people experiencing economic hardship may direct their frustration and hostility toward minority groups, whom they see as competitors for jobs or opportunities.

14. What are the tenets of the contact theory of prejudice? What are the six conditions that must be present for contact to reduce prejudice?

    • Contact Theory: This theory suggests that intergroup contact can reduce prejudice, particularly if the contact is between groups that are equal in status and have a shared goal.

    • Six Conditions for Reducing Prejudice:

      1. Equal status between groups.

      2. Common goals.

      3. Intergroup cooperation.

      4. The support of authorities, law, or custom.

      5. Acquaintance potential (the opportunity to form personal relationships).

      6. Institutional support (support from organizations or systems).

15. Describe the jigsaw classroom. How were the principles of contact theory applied to reduce prejudice in an elementary school classroom? What were the results of the study?

    • Jigsaw Classroom: In the jigsaw classroom, students from different racial or ethnic backgrounds are assigned to small, diverse groups. Each group member is responsible for learning and teaching a portion of the material. This method encourages cooperation and interdependence, fostering positive relationships across groups.

    • Results: The jigsaw classroom has been shown to reduce prejudice and promote greater cooperation between students of different backgrounds.

16. Describe the doll preference study conducted by Kenneth and Mamie Clark. Did African American children prefer to play with white dolls or black dolls? Discuss the implications of this study as they apply to segregation and self-esteem.

    • Doll Preference Study: In the Clark study, African American children were given a choice between white and black dolls. A significant number of children preferred the white dolls, associating them with positive traits. This study highlighted the negative impact of segregation on the self-esteem of African American children, as they internalized societal racial biases.

17. Describe the Robbers Cave study presented in lecture. How was harmony between the Eagles and Rattlers eventually restored?

    • Robbers Cave Study: In this study, two groups of boys (the Eagles and the Rattlers) were initially hostile to each other due to competition. Harmony was restored through superordinate goals—tasks that required cooperation between the two groups (e.g., fixing a broken water supply), leading to the breakdown of intergroup hostility.

18. What is stereotype threat, first introduced by Claude Steele? Describe the typical research design used to test stereotype threat?

    • Stereotype Threat: This refers to the anxiety individuals feel when they fear confirming negative stereotypes about their social group. This anxiety can impair performance.

    • Research Design: Typically, participants from stereotyped groups (e.g., women in math or African Americans in academic settings) are primed with reminders of their group membership. Performance on tasks is then measured to assess if stereotype threat impacts their performance.

19. Describe and explain the availability heuristic and how noticing vivid people and events may contribute to the development and maintenance of stereotypes and prejudice.

    • Availability Heuristic: This heuristic involves relying on immediate examples that come to mind when evaluating a topic or decision. Vivid or dramatic instances (e.g., seeing a crime committed by a member of a particular group) are more likely to be remembered, and they may reinforce stereotypes or prejudice about that group, even if these instances are rare.

Chapter 10 and Lecture: Aggression

1. What is aggression? Provide a definition.

   • Aggression: Aggression is any behavior intended to harm another individual who is motivated to avoid that harm. It can be both physical or psychological and involves intent to hurt or harm another person.

2. Define the following types of aggression: Physical aggression, relational aggression, hostile aggression, and instrumental aggression. Provide examples for each type of aggression.

   • Physical Aggression: Direct physical harm to others (e.g., hitting, punching, or kicking someone).

   • Relational Aggression: Harm to others through damage to relationships or social status (e.g., spreading rumors, exclusion from social groups).

   • Hostile Aggression: Aggression driven by emotions such as anger, with the goal of causing pain or harm to the other person (e.g., a fight between two people fueled by anger).

   • Instrumental Aggression: Aggression as a means to achieve a specific goal or objective, not driven by emotion (e.g., a person robbing a bank and harming others in the process).

3. According to your textbook, are most homicides acts of hostile or instrumental aggression? Are most terrorist acts considered to be an act of hostile or instrumental aggression?

   • Most Homicides: Homicides are often acts of hostile aggression, driven by anger or emotional reactions.

   • Terrorist Acts: Most terrorist acts are considered instrumental aggression, as they are typically carried out with the goal of achieving a specific political, ideological, or religious outcome.

4. Describe instinct as an explanation of aggression and some of the criticisms of instinct theory. According to lecture, what were Lorenz’s and Freud’s views of aggression? Did they believe that aggression was instinctual or learned?

   • Instinct Theory: Instinct theory posits that aggression is an innate, biologically programmed behavior.

   • Criticism: Critics argue that aggression is not simply an automatic instinct but is influenced by environmental factors, culture, and learning.

   • Lorenz’s View: Konrad Lorenz believed aggression was instinctual and had evolutionary purposes, such as defending territory.

   • Freud’s View: Sigmund Freud viewed aggression as a fundamental human instinct, tied to the death drive (Thanatos), which was in conflict with the life drive (Eros).

   • Instinct or Learned: Both Lorenz and Freud considered aggression to be instinctual, though they acknowledged that it could be modulated by experiences.

5. Describe the study by Kuo (1930) that investigated whether learning could modify instinctual behavior and aggression. What were the results of the study? Did the results support or refute the idea that early learning and experience can modify “instinctual” behavior?

   • Kuo’s Study: Kuo conducted an experiment where he raised a kitten with a rat, and the kitten did not attack the rat.

   • Results: The kitten's behavior was modified by early learning experiences, as it did not show aggressive behavior toward the rat, contrary to what would be expected in the wild.

   • Conclusion: The results support the idea that early learning and experience can modify what might be considered instinctual behavior.

6. Describe the studies that have investigated the brain neural systems in both animals and in humans that facilitate aggression as provided in your textbook. What structure of the brain is MOST associated with anger and rage responses?

   • Brain and Aggression: Studies show that the amygdala plays a significant role in aggression, particularly in emotional responses like anger and rage. The prefrontal cortex also has a moderating role in controlling aggressive impulses.

7. What is the function of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) in inhibiting aggressive responses? How does the PFC differ in murderers and anti-social men?

   • PFC Function: The prefrontal cortex is crucial for decision-making, impulse control, and regulating emotions, including aggression.

   • Differences in Murderers/Anti-social Men: Research suggests that individuals with anti-social behavior, including murderers, often have reduced activity or damage in the prefrontal cortex, leading to impaired inhibition of aggressive impulses.

8. Describe the correlational research that has investigated the relationship between levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin and the commission of violent crimes as described in the lecture. Is there a negative or positive correlation?

   • Serotonin and Aggression: There is typically a negative correlation between serotonin levels and aggressive behavior. Lower levels of serotonin are associated with increased aggression and violent crime.

9. Describe the research that has investigated possible genetic influences in human aggression.

   • Genetic Influences: Studies suggest that genetic factors can contribute to aggression. For example, certain gene mutations or variations (such as in the MAOA gene, also known as the "warrior gene") may predispose individuals to aggression, particularly in combination with environmental factors.

10. Describe and explain the research that has investigated the relationship between alcohol consumption and aggressive behavior in humans. Describe the study by Macdonald (2000) presented in your textbook. In which condition were intoxicated males MOST likely to experience anger and deliver more intense shocks?

    • Alcohol and Aggression: Alcohol is known to disinhibit behavior, meaning it reduces the self-regulation of aggressive impulses.

    • Macdonald's Study: In Macdonald’s experiment, intoxicated males were most likely to deliver more intense shocks to others when they were provoked, particularly in a condition where they felt their personal boundaries or honor were challenged.

11. Describe and explain the research that has investigated the relationship between testosterone and human aggression. What is the relationship between testosterone levels and age? Do testosterone levels increase or decrease as men get older? Do crime rates increase or decrease as men get older?

    • Testosterone and Aggression: Research shows a positive correlation between testosterone levels and aggression, suggesting that higher testosterone levels may contribute to increased aggressive behavior.

    • Age and Testosterone: Testosterone levels tend to decrease with age.

    • Crime Rates and Age: As men age, crime rates typically decrease, which aligns with the decrease in testosterone levels.

12. Describe the relationship between aggression and frustration and the role that displacement plays in selecting the target of aggression. Include in your answer the study by Hovland and Sears (1940) that provided evidence for the role of displacement.

    • Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis: The hypothesis suggests that aggression is often a result of frustration—when an individual is blocked from achieving a goal.

    • Displacement: When frustration cannot be directed at the source, it may be displaced onto a safer target.

    • Hovland & Sears Study: They found that economic frustration (from falling cotton prices) led to increased aggression toward African Americans, a displaced target, providing evidence for the role of frustration and displacement in aggression.

13. What is relative deprivation? Define. Discuss the role that relative deprivation played in the 1967 Detroit riots as explained in lecture.

    • Relative Deprivation: The perception that one is worse off compared to others or a perceived deprivation relative to others, often leading to frustration and aggression.

    • Detroit Riots: Relative deprivation was a key factor in the 1967 Detroit riots, as African Americans in Detroit felt deprived and discriminated against, contributing to their frustration and violence.

Chapter 10 and Lecture: Aggression (Continued)

14. Describe research that has investigated the likelihood of homicide and suicide in the United States for households that have handguns as described in lecture and your textbook. What has research revealed about rates of homicide after stricter gun laws have been imposed?

• Handgun Research: Studies have shown that households with handguns are more likely to experience both homicide and suicide. The presence of a firearm in the home significantly increases the risk of violent death, particularly when emotional or situational stressors are involved.

• Stricter Gun Laws: Research indicates that in areas with stricter gun laws, homicide rates tend to decrease, as access to firearms is more tightly controlled, reducing the likelihood of violent confrontations turning deadly.

15. Describe the research that has investigated the relationship between family influences and aggression presented in both lecture and your textbook. Specifically, do children raised in abusive family environments have an increased risk of becoming abusive parents as adults? Do milder forms of punishment such as spanking have an effect on subsequent aggression in adulthood?

• Abusive Family Environments: Research shows that children raised in abusive family environments are more likely to become aggressive adults and may be at higher risk of becoming abusive parents themselves. The cycle of aggression is often perpetuated due to learned behavior and lack of healthy emotional regulation models.

• Spanking: Studies indicate that milder forms of punishment, such as spanking, are linked to increased aggression in adulthood. Children who are spanked may learn to associate aggression with resolving conflict and may adopt similar methods in their adult relationships.

16. According to research by Vandello (2008) described in your textbook, in what region of the United States are white homicide rates highest and why?

• Vandello’s Research: Vandello’s research found that Southern states in the U.S. tend to have higher homicide rates among white individuals. This phenomenon is often attributed to a cultural pattern known as the "culture of honor," where aggressive responses to perceived insults or threats to personal or family honor are more prevalent.

17. Describe the correlational and experimental research that has investigated the relationship between temperature and aggression in humans. Do tempers get hot when people get hot?

• Temperature and Aggression: Research consistently shows that as temperatures rise, so does the likelihood of aggressive behavior. Experimental studies have demonstrated that on hot days, people are more likely to engage in aggressive acts. This may be due to increased discomfort or frustration caused by heat, which makes individuals more likely to act out in aggression.

18. Describe the research that has investigated the relationship between exposure to violent vs. consensual pornography and their effects on men’s attitudes about women. Is exposure to violent pornography more likely to increase hostility toward women?

• Violent Pornography: Exposure to violent pornography has been found to increase hostility toward women and diminish empathy for them. Studies show that individuals who consume violent pornography are more likely to hold misogynistic beliefs, perceive women as objects, and exhibit aggressive behavior toward women.

19. Describe the experimental and correlational research that has investigated the relationship between exposure to violent media, e.g., television and films, and aggression in children, adolescents, and adults. Does the bulk of the research support or refute the claim that exposure to violent media increases aggressive behavior?

• Violent Media and Aggression: A large body of experimental and correlational research supports the idea that exposure to violent media, including television, films, and video games, can increase aggressive behavior in both children and adults. The research suggests that repeated exposure to violent media can desensitize individuals to violence and normalize aggressive behavior.

20. What is the catharsis hypothesis? According to research findings, does viewing or engaging in aggressive behavior increase or decrease subsequent aggression in humans? Does the research support or refute the catharsis hypothesis?

• Catharsis Hypothesis: The catharsis hypothesis posits that engaging in aggressive behavior or viewing aggression helps to release pent-up emotions and reduce future aggression.

• Research Findings: Research generally refutes the catharsis hypothesis, suggesting that engaging in or observing aggression does not reduce aggression, but instead often increases it. Individuals who express aggression may feel more justified in their behavior and may become more likely to engage in aggressive acts later.

21. Describe the meta-analysis conducted by Anderson et al., (2010) that studied the effects of violent video games on aggression. Are the effects found in children, adolescents, and young adults, or are the effects limited to a specific age group?

• Anderson et al. (2010) Meta-Analysis: This study analyzed a large number of studies on the effects of violent video games on aggression. The meta-analysis found that exposure to violent video games was associated with an increase in aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behavior across multiple age groups, including children, adolescents, and young adults. The effects were not limited to a specific age group, suggesting that violent video games can influence aggression in people of varying ages.

22. According to the textbook, research by Gerber found that heavy TV viewers were more likely to exaggerate the frequency of violence in the real world. Which of the following influences best explains this finding: Cognitive priming, desensitization, social scripts, or altered perceptions?

• Altered Perceptions: Gerber's research suggests that heavy television viewers tend to exaggerate the frequency of violence in the real world because of altered perceptions. Media exposure shapes how people perceive the world, leading to an inflated sense of danger or violence that is not reflected in actual crime rates.

23. What are some of the ways that aggression can be reduced as described in your textbook and discussed in lecture?

• Ways to Reduce Aggression:

  • Cognitive restructuring: Helping individuals reframe aggressive thoughts and respond more constructively.

  • Promoting empathy: Teaching individuals to understand and share the feelings of others can reduce aggressive impulses.

  • Increasing self-regulation: Encouraging strategies like relaxation or mindfulness to manage stress and frustration.

  • Improving communication skills: Teaching better conflict resolution skills can prevent the escalation of aggressive behavior.

  • Exposure to prosocial models: Demonstrating non-aggressive ways to handle conflict can help reduce aggression.

  • Creating supportive environments: Encouraging positive relationships and reducing frustration can mitigate the triggers of aggression.

Chapter 11 and Lecture: Social Relationships

1. What is the “need to belong” and why is social rejection and ostracism so painful? Include the research using fMRI technology that has explored the pain caused by social rejection in your answer.

   • Need to Belong: The "need to belong" is a fundamental human motivation to form and maintain strong social bonds. Social rejection and ostracism are painful because they threaten an individual's sense of belonging and self-worth.

   • fMRI Research: Studies using fMRI technology have shown that social rejection activates the same regions of the brain that are involved in physical pain (e.g., the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex), indicating that the emotional pain of social rejection is processed similarly to physical pain.

2. What are the cognitive, affective, and behavioral effects of social exclusion described in lecture and your textbook?

   • Cognitive Effects: Social exclusion can lead to negative thoughts about oneself, rumination, and diminished cognitive functioning.

   • Affective Effects: It can cause feelings of sadness, loneliness, and anxiety.

   • Behavioral Effects: Individuals may engage in maladaptive behaviors, including aggression, withdrawal, or attempts to reconnect with others through coercion or manipulative actions.

3. Compared to social isolates, how do people with social support systems differ in their emotional and physical well-being?

   • Social Support: People with strong social support systems are generally better able to cope with stress, have better mental and physical health, and are at lower risk for chronic illnesses like cardiovascular disease. Social support buffers the effects of stress and promotes well-being.

4. What is functional distance? According to a study conducted by Cacioppo (2013), what is the most common way couples meet?

   • Functional Distance: Functional distance refers to the likelihood of two people coming into contact with each other based on their physical proximity or shared spaces.

   • Cacioppo Study: Cacioppo found that the most common way couples meet is through mutual acquaintances, suggesting that proximity and social networks play a significant role in forming relationships.

Chapter 11 and Lecture: Social Relationships (Continued)

5. What is the mere exposure effect? Describe the study by Moreland and Beach presented in lecture. Whom did the students describe as most likeable and attractive?

   • Mere Exposure Effect: The mere exposure effect is the tendency for people to develop a preference for things they are exposed to repeatedly. The more we encounter something, the more we tend to like it, simply due to familiarity.

   • Moreland and Beach Study: In their study, Moreland and Beach had female college students attend classes at different frequencies. The students who attended more frequently were rated as more likeable and attractive by their male classmates. This shows how repeated exposure increases attraction.

6. Describe the experiment by Aronson and Linder (1965) on the gain-loss effect presented in lecture. In what condition did participants rate the confederates MOST likeable at the end of the study? Who came in last?

   • Gain-Loss Effect: The gain-loss effect is a phenomenon where people are more likely to like someone who initially dislikes them but then comes to like them, as opposed to someone who always likes them.

   • Aronson and Linder’s Study: In the study, participants rated a confederate who initially criticized them but later praised them as the most likeable. The confederate who consistently praised them came in last. The shift from negative to positive evaluations created a stronger bond due to the contrast.

7. According to research on similarity and attraction, are we more likely to have successful and enduring relationships with someone whom we are similar to or someone who is our opposite?

   • Similarity and Attraction: Research consistently shows that people are more likely to form successful and enduring relationships with individuals who share similarities in values, interests, and attitudes. Similarity fosters mutual understanding and reduces conflict, making these relationships more stable over time.

8. What is the “matching phenomenon” described in your textbook?

   • Matching Phenomenon: The matching phenomenon refers to the tendency for people to form relationships with others who are similar in terms of physical attractiveness, social status, and other traits. It suggests that individuals are most likely to pair with others of comparable value.

9. Describe the research on attractiveness presented in lecture. According to lecture, how do babies, children, and teachers differ in their preferences for attractive vs. unattractive people?

   • Research on Attractiveness: Studies on attractiveness reveal that people are typically drawn to individuals who are deemed physically attractive. Babies show preferences for attractive faces, and this preference is carried through childhood and into adulthood.

   • Preferences in Babies and Children: Babies and children tend to look longer at attractive faces, suggesting an early preference for physical beauty. Teachers are also more likely to rate attractive children as having more positive qualities, demonstrating a bias in favor of attractiveness.

10. What is the physical attractiveness stereotype that “beautiful is good”? According to lecture, what traits and personal qualities are most likely to be attributed to physically attractive people?

• Beautiful is Good Stereotype: The physical attractiveness stereotype is the belief that physically attractive people possess more desirable personality traits, such as being more sociable, intelligent, and successful.

• Traits and Qualities: Attractive individuals are often perceived as more socially competent, kind, and intelligent, despite these qualities not being objectively correlated with attractiveness.

11. Describe the study by Frieze et al., (1991) presented in your textbook that examined the attractiveness of male and female MBA graduates and starting salary. What were the results of this study?

• Frieze et al. Study: This study found that male MBA graduates who were perceived as more attractive received higher starting salaries compared to their less attractive counterparts. For females, however, the correlation between attractiveness and salary was weaker, reflecting societal biases that influence compensation based on appearance.

12. Describe the cross-cultural study on mate selection conducted by David Buss (1994). What traits did men prefer in potential mates and what traits did women prefer in potential mates? What is evolutionary psychology’s explanation for these findings?

• David Buss Study: Buss's cross-cultural study examined mate preferences in over 30 countries. Men generally preferred younger women who were physically attractive and showed signs of fertility, while women preferred men who were older, with higher status, resources, and physical strength.

• Evolutionary Explanation: Evolutionary psychology suggests that these preferences arise due to reproductive strategies. Men prioritize fertility cues (youth and beauty), while women prioritize resources and stability for offspring survival.

13. According to the results of the “blind date” study conducted by Walster et al., (1966) described in lecture, what attribute best predicted the participants’ interest in seeing their date again?

• Walster et al. Study: The study found that physical attractiveness was the strongest predictor of whether participants wanted to see their date again, regardless of other factors such as personality or mutual interests.

14. Describe Shaver and Hazan’s attachment theory of love. Does the quality of attachment with parents during childhood correlate with the quality of attachment in adulthood?

• Shaver and Hazan’s Attachment Theory: Shaver and Hazan applied attachment theory to romantic relationships, suggesting that the attachment styles developed in childhood (secure, anxious, or avoidant) influence how individuals form and maintain relationships in adulthood.

• Correlation: Research shows that there is a strong correlation between childhood attachment quality and adult relationship behavior. Secure attachments in childhood often lead to healthier, more stable relationships in adulthood.

15. Describe the three infant-maternal attachment styles identified by Mary Ainsworth.

• Ainsworth’s Attachment Styles:

  1. Secure Attachment: Infants feel safe when their caregiver is present and are upset when the caregiver leaves, but they are easily soothed upon return.

  2. Anxious-Ambivalent Attachment: Infants are extremely distressed when the caregiver leaves and are difficult to soothe when the caregiver returns, showing ambivalence.

  3. Avoidant Attachment: Infants show little distress when the caregiver leaves and avoid or ignore the caregiver upon return.

16. Describe social exchange theory’s explanation as to why couples either stay in or end a relationship. Include a discussion of comparison levels and comparison levels for the alternative in your answer.

• Social Exchange Theory: Social exchange theory suggests that people evaluate relationships based on the rewards they receive versus the costs they incur. If the rewards outweigh the costs and alternatives seem less attractive, people are more likely to stay in the relationship.

• Comparison Levels: This is the standard by which individuals evaluate the rewards and costs of a relationship, based on their expectations and previous experiences.

• Comparison Levels for Alternatives: This refers to the potential rewards and costs of relationships outside the current one. If alternatives are perceived as better, individuals may be more likely to end the relationship.

17. How does equity theory explain why couples either stay in or end a relationship?

• Equity Theory: Equity theory posits that people are motivated to maintain a sense of fairness in relationships. If one partner feels they are giving more or receiving less than their partner, they may feel dissatisfied, which can lead to relationship instability. A balanced exchange of rewards and costs is key to relationship satisfaction.

18. Describe Sternberg’s triangular theory of love and the three components of intimacy, passion, and commitment. Describe how the presence and/or absence of the above components combine in the following types of love: romantic, companionate, fatuous, infatuation, empty, and consummate love.

• Triangular Theory of Love: Sternberg’s theory proposes that love is made up of three components:

  1. Intimacy: Emotional closeness and connection.

  2. Passion: Physical attraction and sexual desire.

  3. Commitment: The decision to maintain the relationship.

• Types of Love:

  • Romantic Love: Intimacy + Passion (emotional and physical attraction without long-term commitment).

  • Companionate Love: Intimacy + Commitment (deep friendship and commitment without sexual passion).

  • Fatuous Love: Passion + Commitment (passionate commitment without intimacy).

  • Infatuation: Passion alone (intense attraction without emotional closeness or commitment).

  • Empty Love: Commitment alone (long-term commitment without intimacy or passion).

  • Consummate Love: Intimacy + Passion + Commitment (ideal love with all three components).

19. Describe the following styles of love introduced by Lee (1977) described in lecture: Romantic love, companionate love, game-playing love, pragma love, mania love, and selfless love.

• Romantic Love: Passionate and idealistic love characterized by intense feelings and attraction.

• Companionate Love: Deep affection and strong emotional connection without intense passion.

• Game-Playing Love: Love based on fun and excitement, often without deep emotional commitment.

• Pragma Love: Practical love based on compatibility and shared goals.

• Mania Love: Intense, obsessive love that can be possessive or jealous.

• Selfless Love: Altruistic love characterized by selflessness and deep care for the other person.

20. Describe Hatfield’s theory of passionate love described in your textbook.

• Hatfield’s Theory of Passionate Love: According to Hatfield, passionate love is characterized by intense emotions, physical attraction, and a sense of urgency. This type of love is often idealized and can lead to obsessive thoughts about the partner.

21. What do studies on similarity and attraction reveal about the relationship of similarity in attitudes and values and the likelihood that couples will have successful and enduring relationships?

• Similarity and Relationship Success: Studies show that couples who share similar attitudes, values, and beliefs are more likely to have successful and enduring relationships. Similarity promotes understanding and reduces conflict, creating a stable foundation for long-term partnerships.

Chapter 12 and Lecture: Altruism

1. According to lecture, how is true altruism defined by social psychologists?

   • True Altruism: Social psychologists define true altruism as helping behavior that is motivated purely by a desire to benefit another person, without any expectation of personal gain or reward.

2. Describe evolutionary theory’s explanation of altruism. Include a discussion of inclusive fitness in your answer.

   • Evolutionary Explanation: Evolutionary theory suggests that altruism can be explained by the concept of inclusive fitness, which refers to the idea that helping others, especially relatives, increases the chances of passing on shared genes to the next generation.

3. How does evolutionary theory explain why humans and non-human animals help those with whom they are not genetically related? Include a discussion of reciprocal altruism in your answer.

   • Reciprocal Altruism: Evolutionary theory suggests that humans and non-human animals help non-relatives through reciprocal altruism, which is the idea that helping others increases the likelihood of receiving help in the future, thereby benefiting both parties in the long run.

4. What are the major tenets of social exchange theory’s explanation of altruism? Include in your answer the “minimax” strategy that people use before deciding whether to offer help.

   • Social Exchange Theory: Social exchange theory explains altruism as a cost-benefit analysis where people weigh the potential rewards and costs before deciding to help. The minimax strategy suggests that individuals aim to maximize benefits while minimizing costs when deciding whether to offer help.

5. Discuss the relationship between mood and altruism. How do happiness, sadness, and guilt affect an individual’s likelihood of offering help to another?

   • Mood and Altruism: Positive moods (happiness) tend to increase the likelihood of helping, as people in good moods are more likely to engage in prosocial behaviors. Negative moods (sadness and guilt) can also increase helping behavior, as individuals may feel the need to alleviate their emotional discomfort by helping others.

CHAPTER 16: Environmental Issues

1. Position on Global Warming and Climate Change:

   • Environmental Scientists and IPCC Position: Environmental scientists and organizations such as the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) agree that global warming and climate change are serious threats to the environment. According to the IPCC, the primary cause of climate change is human activity, particularly the burning of fossil fuels, which increases the concentration of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

2. World Population and Cars:

   • Population in 1960 vs. Today: The world population in 1960 was approximately 3 billion. As of 2023, the population is around 8 billion.

   • Cars on Earth: There are currently over 1.4 billion cars on the planet.

3. U.S. Population and Energy Consumption:

   • Percentage of World’s Population: The United States comprises about 4.25% of the world’s population.

   • Energy Consumption: Despite its small proportion of the global population, the U.S. consumes around 25% of the world’s energy. This indicates that the U.S. consumes a disproportionate share of global energy.

4. Environmentally Friendly Technologies:

   • New Technologies: These include solar energy, wind power, electric vehicles, and energy-efficient appliances. Innovations in green architecture (e.g., energy-efficient buildings) and biofuels have also been developed to reduce carbon footprints and reliance on fossil fuels.

5. Strategies to Reduce Consumption:

   • Regulation: Governments can set limits on consumption through laws (e.g., emissions standards or water usage restrictions). This helps reduce overall environmental impact.

   • Incentives: Providing rewards or subsidies (e.g., tax rebates for electric cars or solar panels) to encourage people to reduce consumption or adopt eco-friendly behaviors.

   • Partitioning: Dividing resources (e.g., energy or water) into smaller portions or quotas, which can help individuals and organizations use only what they need.

   • Feedback: Providing feedback about consumption levels (e.g., energy usage reports or car mileage tracking) can encourage people to reduce waste and adopt more sustainable habits.

CHAPTER 13: Social Dilemmas

1. What is a Social Dilemma?

   • A social dilemma occurs when individuals or groups act in their own self-interest, which leads to a worse outcome for everyone in the long run. For example, overfishing or pollution are social dilemmas where individuals' choices harm the collective.

   • A social trap is a specific type of social dilemma where individuals pursue short-term rewards that lead to long-term negative consequences for everyone, like excessive use of fossil fuels.

2. Prisoner’s Dilemma:

   • In the Prisoner's Dilemma, prisoners are most likely to get a light sentence if both cooperate and remain silent. If one betrays the other, the betrayer may receive a moderate sentence while the other gets a harsh sentence. If both betray, they both receive harsh sentences.

   • Zero-sum game: One player's gain is exactly balanced by the other's loss.

   • Non-zero-sum game: It is possible for both players to benefit or both to lose. The Prisoner's Dilemma is often a non-zero-sum game because cooperation can lead to a better outcome for both.

3. Commons Dilemma and Behavioral Modifications:

   • Partitioning: Dividing resources (e.g., limiting water usage by individuals) can help reduce consumption in a commons dilemma.

   • Regulation: Governments can create rules (e.g., fishing quotas) to control overuse of common resources.

   • Feedback: Giving consumers feedback on their resource usage (e.g., utility consumption reports) can make them more conscious of their behavior.

4. Non-zero-sum Games in the Prisoner’s Dilemma and Commons Dilemma:

   • Yes, both the Prisoner's Dilemma and the Commons Dilemma can be non-zero-sum games. In these situations, cooperative behavior can lead to mutually beneficial outcomes, whereas competitive or selfish behavior leads to a suboptimal result for everyone involved.

5. Group Discussion and Social Dilemmas:

   • Group discussion can help resolve social dilemmas by fostering cooperation and finding mutually beneficial solutions. However, it can also hinder resolution if participants become entrenched in their positions or if group dynamics encourage selfish behavior.

6. Strategies to Resolve Social Dilemmas:

   • Small Groups: Focusing on small groups can encourage cooperation and easier enforcement of norms.

   • Social Responsibility Norms: Enforcing norms that promote collective responsibility can help resolve social dilemmas (e.g., environmental protection).

   • Regulation: Governments can impose regulations to limit harmful behavior (e.g., pollution control laws).

   • Changing Payoffs: Altering the incentives (e.g., offering rewards for conservation) can encourage more cooperative behavior.

7. Negative Mirror-Image Perception:

   • A negative mirror-image perception occurs when each side in a conflict sees the other as unreasonable or hostile, often leading to increased hostility and difficulty resolving the conflict. For example, in political conflicts, one side may view the other as malicious, reinforcing the conflict.

8. Bargaining, Mediation, and Arbitration:

   • Bargaining involves negotiation between parties to reach a mutual agreement.

   • Mediation involves a neutral third party who facilitates communication between conflicting parties and encourages a win-win resolution.

   • Arbitration involves a third party making a binding decision. A win-win orientation, often promoted in mediation, seeks mutually beneficial solutions.

9. The Four C's of Peacemaking:

   • The four C's are contact, cooperation, communication, and conciliation. These strategies help reduce conflict by fostering understanding, collaboration, and peaceful resolutions.

10. Osgood’s GRIT Strategy:

    • GRIT (Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction) involves making small, unilateral concessions to build trust and reduce tensions between conflicting parties. This strategy emphasizes mutual cooperation over time.

CHAPTER 14: Stress and Health

1. How is Stress Defined?

   • Stress is a psychological and physiological response to perceived challenges or threats. It can manifest as both acute (short-term) and chronic (long-term) stress, affecting mental and physical well-being.

2. Catastrophes and Health Problems:

   • Studies have shown that people who experience catastrophic events (e.g., natural disasters) are more likely to develop stress-related health problems such as cardiovascular issues and immune system suppression.

3. Symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD):

   • PTSD symptoms include flashbacks, nightmares, emotional numbness, and hyperarousal. It is typically caused by exposure to traumatic events.

4. Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome:

   • Selye’s model includes three stages:

     1. Alarm: The body prepares for "fight or flight."

     2. Resistance: The body adapts to ongoing stress.

     3. Exhaustion: Prolonged stress leads to a depletion of resources, increasing the risk of health problems.

5. Stress and Immune System:

   • Prolonged stress is more harmful to health and the immune system than acute stress. Chronic stress can lead to immune suppression, making individuals more susceptible to illness.

6. Type A and Type D Personalities:

   • Type A personalities are competitive, time-urgent, and hostile. They are at higher risk for heart disease.

   • Type D personalities are characterized by negative emotions and social inhibition, which can also contribute to health issues like cardiovascular problems.

7. Toxic Components of Type A Personality:

   • The toxic components of Type A personality include hostility and time urgency, which are linked to increased risk of coronary heart disease.

8. Rational Emotive Therapy (Ellis):

   • Rational vs. Irrational Appraisals: Rational appraisals involve a realistic view of the stressor, while irrational appraisals involve exaggerating the threat. Irrational thinking leads to more intense emotional reactions to stress.

9. Exercise and Depression Study:

   • A study found that exercise can reduce symptoms of depression by increasing endorphins and providing a sense of achievement.

10. Health Benefits of Laughter and Humor:

    • Laughter and humor have been shown to reduce stress hormones, improve immune function, and enhance mood.

11. Social Support vs. Social Isolation:

    • People with social support tend to have better mental and physical health outcomes compared to socially isolated individuals, who are at increased risk for various health issues.

12. Attributional Styles for Success and Failure (Seligman):

    • Optimists attribute success to internal, stable, and global factors, while pessimists attribute failures to internal, stable, and global causes. Optimists tend to have better mental health outcomes.

13. Negative Thought Patterns in Depressed People (Beck):

    • Depressed individuals often have negative self-schemas and engage in cognitive distortions, such as overgeneralizing or catastrophizing.

14. Self-Efficacy:

    • Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s ability to accomplish tasks. High self-efficacy leads to better mental health and can improve physical health by fostering proactive behaviors.

15. Health Benefits of Confiding:

    • Writing about traumatic events has been shown to improve long-term physical health and psychological well-being (e.g., Pennebaker’s study on writing and health).

CHAPTER 15: Eyewitness Testimony and Legal Issues

1. Gary Wells and DNA Testing:

   • Gary Wells and his colleagues reviewed 40 cases where DNA testing was used to determine the guilt or innocence of a convicted felon. The results showed that eyewitness misidentification was the leading cause of wrongful convictions. Many innocent individuals were wrongfully convicted based on faulty eyewitness testimony.

2. Post-Conviction DNA Exonerations (Innocence Project):

   • As of 2019, the Innocence Project reported that there have been over 375 DNA exonerations in the United States. Eyewitness misidentification was responsible for approximately 75% of wrongful convictions in these cases.

3. Sheppard & Vidmar (1980) Study:

   • This study explored how eyewitnesses retelling their story affected their perception of the defense. It was found that when eyewitnesses retold what they had seen, their memories became more favorable toward the defense, possibly due to reconsideration of the details.

4. Improving Photo Identification and Lineups:

   • To improve the accuracy of photo identification and police lineups, sequential presentations (where each lineup photo is shown one at a time) are preferred over simultaneous presentations (where all photos are shown at once). Sequential presentations reduce errors because witnesses cannot compare the photos directly against each other, which limits the risk of choosing the most familiar face rather than the correct one.

5. Loftus Study on Circumstantial Evidence and Eyewitness Testimony:

   • In Loftus's study, students were presented with cases that either had circumstantial evidence alone or circumstantial evidence plus an eyewitness. The study found that eyewitness testimony heavily influenced the verdicts. However, when the eyewitness was discredited, the influence on the verdict was reduced, though not entirely eliminated.

6. Pretrial Publicity and Jurors’ Likelihood of Voting Guilty:

   • Studies have shown that pretrial publicity can significantly influence jurors' decisions, making them more likely to vote guilty, even before hearing all the facts. Instructions to disregard pretrial publicity are not always effective, as jurors may still be subconsciously influenced by the information they have been exposed to.

7. Six-Person vs. Twelve-Person Juries:

   • Six-person juries tend to be more efficient and quicker in decision-making, but they may be less diverse in terms of perspectives. Twelve-person juries are more likely to be representative of the population and can provide a broader range of opinions, but they are generally slower in reaching decisions.

8. Malpass and Devine (1981) Study on Biased vs. Unbiased Instructions:

   • In this study, participants were given biased or unbiased instructions during a lineup identification process. The results showed that unbiased instructions (telling eyewitnesses that the suspect may or may not be in the lineup) improved the accuracy of identifications and reduced errors. When witnesses were told that the suspect was in the lineup, they were more likely to make false identifications.

9. Criminal Charges Based on Eyewitness Testimony:

   • According to the National Institute of Justice, approximately one-third of criminal charges in the United States are based solely on eyewitness testimony.

10. Cognitive Interview:

    • The cognitive interview is a technique used to improve the quality of eyewitness testimony. It involves encouraging the witness to recall the event in detail, using techniques like context reinstatement and asking open-ended questions. Training police officers to use the cognitive interview increases the amount of information witnesses provide and reduces the likelihood of false memories.

11. Wiseman (1998) Study on Suspect Characteristics:

    • In a study conducted in cooperation with the BBC, viewers' likelihood of voting guilty was most influenced by the characteristics of the suspect, such as their appearance and perceived credibility. This finding highlights how personal biases can affect judgment, even in controlled settings.

12. Death-Qualified Juries:

    • Death-qualified juries are juries composed of individuals who do not oppose the death penalty. These juries are often more likely to convict the defendant because people who are opposed to the death penalty are excluded from serving on such juries, leading to a more pro-prosecution group.

13. Misinformation Effect:

    • The misinformation effect occurs when misleading information introduced after an event alters an individual’s memory of that event. According to Loftus, the leading cause of the misinformation effect is the suggestibility of eyewitnesses—information they are exposed to later can alter their recollection of the event.

14. Voir Dire, Peremptory Challenges, and Exclusion for Cause:

    • Voir dire is the jury selection process, where attorneys question potential jurors to ensure they are impartial.

    • Peremptory challenges allow attorneys to dismiss potential jurors without stating a reason, although these are limited in number.

    • Exclusion for cause occurs when a potential juror is dismissed due to a specific reason (e.g., bias or prior knowledge of the case).