Gender theories

THE DEFICIT APPROACH

Robin Lakoff’s Language and Woman’s Place- viewed as characteristic of a deficit approach to the study of language and gender in which female language is seen as deficient in some way to the established male norm
Lakoff claimed that much of women’s language lacked real authority compared to that used by men
Differences are more socially constructed than biologically between men and women
Lakoff suggested that socialisation played an important role in ensuring that female language remained less assertive & more insecure when compared to that of men
It proposed a set of features that characterised women’s language as deficient when compared to men

Including:

The use of a specialised vocabulary centred around domestic chores
Precise colour terms, e.g., ‘mauve’, ‘magenta’
Weak expletive terms, e.g. ‘oh dear’
Empty adjectives, e.g. ‘sweet’
Tag questions to show uncertainty, e.g. ‘isn’t it?’
More polite forms than men use, e.g. euphemisms such as ‘spend a penny’
Hedges, e.g. ‘you know’
Intensifiers, e.g. ‘so’

Tag questions: a group of words that turn a declarative into an interrogative, for example, ‘It’s cold’ becomes ‘It’s cold, isn’t it'?’

Evaluation of Lakoff: Janet Holmes

Says that tag questions could be a function to help maintain discussion/ to be polite
Holmes suggests that rather than being mere signs of weakness, tag questions are multi-functional
Argues that to suggest that lexical hedges and fillers and other features of women’s language used are because of indecision is misleading

Evaluation of Lakoff: Betty Dubois and Isobel Crouch

Found that men used more tag questions than women

THE DOMINANCE APPROACH

Focuses on the ways in which men were seen as controlling & dominating mixed-sex interactions
Zimmerman & West- found that 96% of all interruptions in mix-sex conversations were made by men.
They saw this as a sign that women had restricted linguistic freedom and that men sought to impose their dominant status by applying explicit constraints in conversations
They later carried out a study of the interactions between parents and children and concluded that parents interrupted and assumed power in those interactions the same way men had done in mixed talk

THE DIFFERENCE APPROACH

Alternative approach
Variations in the ways males and females use language can be examined using a difference model as being evidence of men and women belonging to different sub-cultures with different attitudes to, and preferences for, types of talk as a result of cultural differences and pressures
Research focus on same-sex talk as a way of exploring the different conversational strategies that women and men use in these contexts
In a similar way to some of the reactions to Lakoff’s ‘women’s Language’, many studies have highlighted positive features of female speech linked to the need to establish and maintain strong social relationships
Has focused on the linguistic achievements of women
Avoided blaming men for simply being too dominant

Jennifer Coates- suggested that all-female talk is essentially cooperative in the way that speakers help to negotiate discussions and support each other’s rights as speakers. Argues that s these patterns are not found in mixed talk, they’re evidence of differing socio-cultural expectations and a key insight into differences in sub-cultures. She also argues that from an early age, men and women are socialised into different spheres of work and personal interest.

Jane Pilkington- also found that women in same-sex talk were more collaborative than men were in all-male talk. She concluded that whereas women aimed for more positive politeness strategies in conversation with other women, men tended to be less complimentary and supportive in all-male talk

MALE TALK

Zimmerman and West-

Zimmerman and West developed the theory of "male talk" in their 1975 study on gendered language.

They argued that men tend to dominate conversations and engage in competitive speech acts, such as interrupting and challenging others.
This theory suggests that male talk reflects power dynamics and reinforces traditional gender roles. However, it is important to note that this theory has been criticized for oversimplifying gendered communication patterns and not accounting for individual differences.
Found that 96% of all interruptions in mix-sex conversations were made by men.
They saw this as a sign that women had restricted linguistic freedom and that men sought to impose their dominant status by applying explicit constraints in conversations
They later carried out a study of the interactions between parents and children and concluded that parents interrupted and assumed power in those interactions the same way men had done in mixed talk

Jennifer Coates is a sociolinguist who has conducted research on gender and language. In her book "Men Talk: Stories in the Making of Masculinities," Coates explores how men use language to construct and negotiate their identities as men. She examines various aspects of men's talk, including storytelling, humour, and conversational styles. Coates argues that language plays a crucial role in the construction of masculinity and that understanding men's talk can provide insights into broader social and cultural dynamics.

‘Holding the floor’- monologue

‘Playing the expert’-

‘Rapid fire-talk’-

Konrad Kuiper-