CH. 1 New_World_Beginnings__33_000_BCE_to_1769

New World Beginnings, 33,000 BCE to 1769 CE

• Native populations migrated and settled across North America over a long span, developing distinct and increasingly complex societies by adapting to and transforming their diverse environments.

• Agriculture and resource use were central to social and economic development; maize (from Mesoamerica) became a staple alongside beans and squash, enabling settled communities and urbanization.

• The Agricultural Revolution in North America paralleled patterns seen in other ancient civilizations: surplus production leads to population growth and urban development, but is also followed by environmental and social pressures that can contribute to decline.

• By the time of sustained European contact, Native societies displayed great regional variation in language, religion, marriage practices, and economies; it is inaccurate to lump all Native peoples into a single category like “Indians.”

• The Columbian Exchange emerges from the contact between Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans, reshaping diets, economies, demographics, and power structures across the Atlantic world.

• Over time, both Europeans and Native Americans adopted useful elements from each other’s cultures, influencing technology, agriculture, governance, religion, and social practices.

Essential Questions

• How did Native populations in North America develop distinct and increasingly complex societies by adapting to and transforming their environments through agriculture and resource use?

• How did maize cultivation support both economic growth and societal decline in early North America?

• How did the Columbian Exchange bring new crops and sources of wealth to Europe from the Americas and help facilitate the growth of the European economy?

• What effects did the Columbian Exchange have on Native peoples in North America?

• How did the Spanish use the encomienda system to marshal Native American labor to support the colonial economy?

• How did Native American resistance to Spanish colonizing efforts lead to Spanish accommodation of some aspects of American Indian culture in the Southwest?

American Origin Stories

• There are numerous theories about how North America was populated.

• Traditional Theory: Land Bridge – original Americans migrated from Siberia across a land bridge (Beringia) during lower sea levels and gradually moved south.

• Newer Theory: Gradual maritime migration down the American coastline – proposed to explain relatively rapid continental settlement.

• Native Creation Stories: Narratives asserting that peoples were always in the land, such as Hopi stories of migration from the lower world into this one.

The First Americans

• Native America is highly diverse in language families, religious beliefs, marital practices, and economies; broad generalizations about “Indians” miss critical regional variation.

• Major cultural groupings include:

  • Nomadic Hunter-Gatherers: Follow game (especially bison) and plant resources; best associated with the Great Plains. Examples: Lakotas, Cheyennes, Blackfeet.

  • Village Dwellers: Settled agricultural communities; example: Pueblo peoples of New Mexico.

  • Semisedentary/Seminomadic: Spend part of the year in settled communities and part of the year following game or fishing; examples: Mandans, Iroquois, Tlingit.

The Agricultural Revolution in North America

• Settled agriculture enabled the development of complex, urban societies in North America prior to European contact.

• Maize, along with beans and squash, became a core trio of staples that supported sustained population centers.

• Like in the Nile Valley and the Fertile Crescent, agriculture and urbanization reinforced one another, enabling surplus production and population growth.

• Surplus agriculture leads to population growth; environmental factors and resource pressures can contribute to eventual decline.

The Ancient Southwest — Geographic and Cultural Context

• The Ancient Southwest hosts some of the most famous urban societies in ancient North America, collectively known as the Ancestral Puebloan culture (formerly “Anasazi”).

• Key locales include: Chaco Canyon (New Mexico), Mesa Verde (Colorado/Utah region), Hohokam sites (in the desert Southwest), and others like Hawikuh, Casa Grande, Gila Cliff Dwellings, Cueva de la Olla, Paquimé, and Cuarenta Casas.

• The region features irrigation systems for agriculture, extensive road networks, and a central role in trade connecting large parts of the American West with Mesoamerica.

• The Ancestral Puebloans declined in the thirteenth century, likely due to drought; causes of decline may include drought, environmental stress, or social factors.

The Ancient Southwest — Key Cultures and Centers

• Hohokam (Arizona, New Mexico area): Noted for sophisticated irrigation and large-scale farming; part of broader desert agricultural adaptation.

• Ancestral Puebloans (Chacoans and Mesa Verdeans):

  • Chaco Canyon, NM: Irrigation-supported agriculture; elaborate road networks; central trade hub linking far regions; declined in the late 1200s due to drought.

  • Mesa Verde, CO/UT region: Cliff-dwelling villages; practiced agriculture; decline with unclear causes (drought, overhunting, warfare).

• Puebloan culture emphasizes urbanized centers, irrigation agriculture, and social organization around communal and ceremonial centers.

The Ancient Southwest — Mesa Verde and Decline Debate

• Mesa Verde Cultural Region: Distinctive cliff-dwelling villages; engaged in agriculture like their southern neighbors.

• Debate over decline causes remains unsettled: drought is a leading hypothesis, with other possibilities including overhunting or warfare.

Mississippian Cultures

• Mississippian cultures share several core traits with the Ancestral Puebloan culture (settled agriculture and complex social structures).

• They built towns and large cities such as Cahokia (near present-day St. Louis, MO).

• Monumental architecture included large earthen pyramids and plaza complexes.

• Mississippian societies declined due to a combination of factors: soil nutrient depletion, overpopulation, intercommunity strife, and raiding by outsiders.

Mississippian Cultures — Centers and Features

• Notable centers across the Southeast and Midwest include sites like Etowah, Moundville, Ocmulgee, and Cahokia;

• The culture is characterized by mound-building, complex social hierarchies, and long-distance trade networks.

European Claims in North America

• The continent saw competing European claims: France, Great Britain, and Spain.

• Territorial designations and control shifted through treaties and exploration, including:

  • The Treaty of Utrecht (1713) ceded various territories from France to Great Britain.

• Maps highlight zones such as Canada, Louisiana, Hudson Bay, the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and the Gulf of Mexico.

• Colonial claims formed the backdrop for later political and cultural conflicts between European empires and Indigenous peoples, as well as among European powers.

Case Study: Spanish New Mexico, 1540s–1696

• Rationales for colonization:

  • Search for wealth (hopes of another “Mexico” or “Peru”).

  • Christianization and religious syncretism with Pueblo beliefs in New Mexico.

• Economic Structure:

  • Emphasis on small-scale agriculture and ranching in NM and California; exploitation of rich silver mines in Durango, Zacatecas, etc., in adjacent regions.

• Encomienda System:

  • Forced labor of Native Americans under Spanish colonial governance.

• Social and Racial Structure:

  • Indian slavery; creolization (similar to New France and distinct from British colonies).

  • Small European population leading to intermarriage with Native peoples and their descendants.

• Pueblo Revolt and Reconquest (1680–1696):

  • Native resistance to Spanish colonization culminated in a major uprising and subsequent reconquest by Spain.

French North America, 1534–1763

• Rationales for colonization:

  • Fur trade as the primary economic motive; search for new sources of wealth through trade networks.

• Religious Structure:

  • Roman Catholic missionization: Jesuit missionaries in Indian Country; Ursuline nuns in Canada and Louisiana.

• Economic Structure:

  • In Canada: small-scale agriculture and fur-based economy; in the Caribbean: sugar plantations reflecting broader Atlantic economic links.

• Social and Racial Structure:

  • Small European population; development of Creole societies in western regions due to the mix of demography and trade.

Wrapping Up Essential Points

• Native populations migrated and settled across the vast expanse of North America over time, developing distinct and increasingly complex societies by adapting to and transforming their diverse environments.

• Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange, bringing profound social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic.

• The Columbian Exchange introduced new crops to Europe from the Americas, contributing to European population growth and economic expansion.

• The introduction of new crops, animals, and diseases by Europeans had far-reaching effects on Native settlement patterns and economic, social, and political development in the Western Hemisphere.

• Over time, Europeans and Native Americans adopted some useful aspects of each other’s cultures, shaping enduring intercultural exchanges and adaptations.