Endangered Species Programs

Historical Context of Species Extinction

• Since the 1700s, North America has lost multiple species to extinction:
  • Stellar Sea Lion
  • Passenger Pigeon
  • Labrador Duck
  • Bachmann's Warblers
  • Great Auk
• Numerous subspecies also extinct, including Eastern Elk and Dusty Sea Sparrow.

Early Conservation Efforts

• Initial conservation efforts were fragmented, addressed on a species-by-species basis:
  • 1860s: Focus on Heath Hen.
  • 1880s: Focus on Bison.
  • 1930s: Focus on Whooping Crane.
• Many efforts were successful (e.g., Bison recovery), but lacked streamlined methods.

Legislative Milestones in Conservation

• Endangered Species Preservation Act (1966):

  • Recognized the obligation to protect endangered native wildlife.
  • Required the Secretary of the Interior to identify endangered species and assess necessary habitat.
  • Early listings: 13 mammals, 36 birds, 6 reptiles/amphibians, 22 fish (no invertebrates or plants).

• Endangered Species Conservation Act (1969):

  • Expanded coverage to all vertebrates, mollusks, and crustaceans, including subspecies.
  • Authorized water resource protection and set aside $5 million annually for habitat acquisition.
  • Encouraged states to adopt similar laws.

• Endangered Species Act (1973):

  • Developed from earlier acts; comprehensive protection for all plant and animal species, including fungi.
  • Allowed listing of subspecies and population segments, granting Fish and Wildlife authority to designate critical habitats.
  • Stipulated penalties for violations (e.g., up to $75,000 for intentional violations).
  • Required a recovery plan for listed species.

Criticisms and Challenges of ESA

• Limited recovery success:

  • Criticized for not enough species recovering.
  • Extinction of some listed species occurred, making it important to assess species over time.
  • Studies show that longer-listed species are more likely to recover.

• Candidate species:

  • Many proposed species lacking sufficient data, several may go extinct before they are officially listed.

Amendments to the ESA

• 1981 Amendment: Required economic justification for listing species.
• 1982 Amendment: Focused on biological criteria, also introduced experimental populations for species recovery.
• 1988 Amendment: Instituted monitoring requirements for listed species and emergency listings.

Species Examples and Conservation Successes

• Alligator:
  • Listed as endangered in 1967; improved protections led to recovery and removal from the list by 1987.
• Bald Eagle:
  • Declared endangered in 1967 due to DDT. Recovery led to removal from the list in 2007.
• Kirtland's Warbler:
  • Nesting challenges; subjected to habitat management and cowbird removal efforts for recovery.

Future Directions in Conservation

• Climate Change as a Primary Threat:
  • Alters habitats, predator-prey interactions, and species distributions.
  • Examples include polar bears suffering from declining sea ice.
• Energy Development and Wildlife:
  • Need for balanced energy management that considers wildlife impacts.
  • Various renewable energy sources present challenges (e.g., wind energy, nuclear).

Public Trust and Wildlife Management Principles

• Wildlife resources should be considered a public trust, managed for the public good.
• Hunting regulations govern access to wildlife resources equitably.
• Policy frameworks should incorporate scientific data and public input for effective wildlife conservation.
• Policy Coalition Building:
  • Collaboration across sectors to address ecological and economic challenges in wildlife conservation.