Hobbes' Leviathan: Human Nature, Social Contracts, and Sovereignty

Introduction to Thomas Hobbes and Leviathan

• Hobbes' Background and Influence:
  • He experienced a difficult life, which likely shaped his philosophical views. He studied at Oxford in 1608 and had strong ties to the Crown during the English Civil War.
• The Concept of Leviathan:
  • In the Old Testament, the Leviathan is described as a large sea serpent, a monster that symbolizes chaos and disorder.
  • Only God is capable of controlling the Leviathan, signifying divine sovereignty and power.
  • Hobbes titled his essay Leviathan because he saw society as inherently chaotic and conflict-ridden, similar to the mythical monster.
  • In Hobbes' philosophy, the Leviathan represents the Commonwealth or the State itself, which must possess absolute control to prevent societal chaos.

Human Nature: Desires and the Condition of War

• The Purpose of Sovereignty:
  • Hobbes explores the qualities that lead humanity to live in peace rather than conflict, emphasizing the eventual need for a powerful sovereign.
• The Nature of Human Desires:
  • Hobbes states: "There succeedeth a new desire in some of fame from new conquest, and others of ease and central pleasure, and others of admiration, or being flattered for excellent in some art or other ability of money."
  • This quote highlights various human desires such as conquest, sensual pleasures, and admiration.
  • Desires are depicted as insatiable and ever-changing; achieving one desire (e.g., a promotion) immediately leads to the pursuit of another.
• Equality and Conflict:
  • Hobbes posits that in the absence of a sovereign, individuals exist on an equal playing field, with no one inherently superior to another.
  • Despite this equality, humans are driven to conflict by competition, the need to assert power, fear of others, and the pursuit of glory or reputation.
  • Any perceived differences in strength, intelligence, or speed are considered minuscule and insufficient to justify dominance, leading to constant struggle.
• The Condition of War (bellum omnium contra omnes):
  • Because of continuous desires and the assumption of superiority (despite underlying equality), humanity naturally exists in a "condition of war"—a state of perpetual fighting.
  • This constant struggle underscores the necessity of laying down certain rights and establishing social contracts to achieve peace.

The Social Contract and Relinquishing Rights

• The Necessity of Relinquishing Rights:
  • To avert chaos and conflict, individuals must be willing to relinquish some of their rights, particularly those they believe belong to them by inherent truth (e.g., historical claims to land).
  • Holding onto such rights leads to large-scale conflicts, similar to international wars over territorial claims or political/religious disputes.
  • Relinquishing rights is crucial for establishing and maintaining peace.
• Challenges to the Social Contract:
  • The concept of a perfect world where everyone willingly cedes rights is challenged, as human nature is often considered selfish.
  • Definition: A social contract involves society voluntarily agreeing to certain rules or structures, demonstrating mutual respect.
• Examples of Social Contracts:
  • Classroom Setting: Students respect the presenter by paying attention, and the presenter respects the students by delivering content, forming an implicit contract.
  • Prison: Entering prison entails relinquishing some rights, though the involuntary nature makes it a complex example.
  • School Rules: Policies against phone usage or headphones, even if not explicitly agreed upon by students, represent a societal expectation. Violating these rules incurs consequences, acting as a form of social contract enforcement by the "state" (school authority).
  • Reckless Driving: Society expects safe driving, forming a contract, but enforcement is often required due to human tendencies to violate it (e.g., speeding on Long Island).
  • These examples illustrate the ideal function of social contracts in a perfect world, contrasting with the realities of human behavior.

Humanity as "Political Creatures" (A Comparison)

• Bees and Ants as Models:
  • Hobbes references bees and ants, which live in organized colonies with specialized roles, all contributing to a common good and sustainable existence.
  • These insect societies have clear power structures (e.g., queen bees, worker ants) that ensure order.
  • Hobbes implies that human society should emulate this structured, collective effort to form a stable commonwealth.
• Debate on Human Nature's "Political" Aspect:
  • Territoriality: Like bees, humans also exhibit territorial behavior, caring deeply for their immediate "colonies" (family, friends, tribes) but less so for strangers.
  • Aristotle's View: Aristotle distinguished between political and non-political individuals, suggesting only the former are truly human.
  • Selfishness vs. Empathy: The discussion touches on whether humans inherently owe kindness and empathy to others, even strangers, or if a prevailing notion suggests one only owes oneself. The idea that common courtesy and support (e.g., showing up to a friend's party) are fundamental parts of social relationships is contrasted with the view of not owing anyone anything.

Sovereignty, Justice, and Democracy

• The English Civil War and its Implications:
  • The overthrow of the monarchy during the English Civil War led to significant chaos.
  • Hobbes considered this a major injustice, fundamentally disagreeing with the idea of distributing power away from a central sovereign.
  • He argued that once power is given to society, it inevitably leads to a state of war, as demonstrated by the Civil War's instability and attempts to overthrow existing powers.
• Hobbes' View on Democracy:
  • Hobbes likely viewed democracy as problematic, as it gives power to the people, whose desires, in his view, predispose them to evil, chaos, and the pursuit of power.
  • Even a commonwealth, driven by desires, might seek to conquer other nations.
• Connection to Crime and Punishment (Bentham):
  • Historically, punishments were often brutal and disproportionate (e.g., execution for stealing bread).
  • Jeremy Bentham, during the Enlightenment, proposed the "hedonistic calculus"—a complex system to ensure punishments are proportionate to crimes.
  • This historical context reinforces the need for structured systems (like Hobbes' sovereign) to prevent societal chaos and arbitrary justice, even if such systems should avoid becoming corrupt or dictated by the will of a single person or group.