Islam in China and Ethnic Minorities

Islam in China: Historical Routes

• Islam entered China via two trading routes:
  • Northern Route (Silk Road):
    • From Persia, Central Asia, and the Middle East (Syria, Iraq).
    • Introduced Islam, the Arabic language, and Persian influences.
  • Southern Route (Maritime Silk Road):
    • Sea routes facilitated the spread of Islam to southern China.
    • Muslim communities emerged in areas like Quanzhou and Yunnan.
    • This route was significant in the Islamization of Southeast Asia, particularly Indonesia, with the support of Zheng He's fleet.

The Term "Hui" and Ethnic Identity

• Yuan Dynasty:
  • Everyone was considered "Hui."
• Early Republic of China (1920s-30s):
  • The term "Hui" narrowed to differentiate Turkic-speaking Uyghurs from Chinese-speaking Muslims.
  • This created a dynamic because some Muslims in China were purely Han Chinese.
• Modern China:
  • "Hui" officially refers to Chinese-speaking Muslims; Uyghurs are a separate category.
  • The term "Hui" is more of a religious concept than a purely ethnic one.
  • The Hui nationality is narrowly defined with emphasis on nationality over ethnicity.
• Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region:
  • Has Chinese-speaking Hui who may have Turkic ancestry due to intermarriage.
• Government Perspective:
  • The government distinguishes groups based on religion (Islam) rather than culture.
  • The Hui generally adhere to Islamic lifestyles but do not face the same level of persecution as Uyghurs.
  • Hui people enjoy certain privileges as a recognized minority group, such as affirmative action benefits for education.
• Islamophobia in China:
  • A period of Islamophobia occurred 10-15 years ago due to ISIS and domestic violence from Uyghurs.
  • This led to some Han Chinese expressing resentment towards halal restaurants and Muslim practices.
  • Currently, Islamophobia has decreased, but the Xinjiang issue has caused nationalistic pushback against Western criticism.

The Yi People: An Ethnic Minority Case Study

• The Yi are one of the largest ethnic minority groups in China, with over 9 million people.
• They belong to the Tibetan-Burman group and primarily live in mountainous regions in Southwest China (Yunnan, Sichuan, Wuxi, and Guizhou provinces).
• Yangshan in Yunnan province is considered the largest settlement, where their culture and language are well-preserved.
• Fire is revered as one of their gods.
• Ethnic Classification in China:
  • Enmogue history: Scholarly discourse on nationality.
  • State discourse: Official classification by the Chinese authorities.
  • Ethnic identity: A person's self-conception of their identity and culture.
  • In the 1950s, ethnic classifications was primarily based on state discourse.
  • Later classifications incorporated ethnohistorical and ethnic perspectives.
  • Putting diverse groups under one designation can create confusion and historical inaccuracies.
  • The choice of names can also be discriminatory.
• Chinese authorities analyzed linguistic, cultural, and historical data to classify groups under the single "Yi" category.
  • This resulted in the grouping of different ethnic groups under one identity.
• Niansha is located in the southwestern part of Sichuan province, bordering Yunnan and close to Tibet, thus sharing cultural influences.
• The preservation of language and written scripts has aided in cultural recognition.
• Religion:
  • Traditional beliefs involve three main parts: humans, gods, and spirits.
  • Spiritual practitioners are called bingu (like gold priests) and Sunni.
• Social Hierarchy:
  • The Yi had a caste system until the late 1950s.
    • Black Yi (gacha): Han people and other ethnic groups captured and enslaved by the Yi.
• Geographic isolation in mountainous regions (average elevation of 2,300 meters) has hindered economic development.
• Marginalization and nationalization efforts have also contributed to challenges.
• The region had high HIV infection rates due to substance abuse related to Opium use.
• Substance use and drug trafficking became prevalent as a means of accruing wealth and expressing manhood.
• Marginalization has led to the Yi being referred to as "backwards" or "uncivilized."
• Relationship with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP):
  • Initially, there was conflict, but the CCP's current policy is a softer approach.
  • Genocide and forced assimilation are not aspects of today's nationality politics in the Jiangshan region.
  • Their languages, ancient written scripts, and customs are promoted to a certain extent.
• Sanification refers to assimilation into Han Chinese culture.
• Traditional assimilation emphasized cultural aspects and non-violence.
• Gradualist approaches to integration were initially successful.
• Radicalization in 1956 led to mass resistance.
• The Cultural Revolution increased conflicts.
• Language Policy:
  • A romanized Yi language system was developed in the 1970s to promote literacy.
  • Mandarin promotion is now emphasized for economic development purposes, such as employment opportunities in larger cities.

China and the World: Challenges and Perspectives

• China faces challenges as its economy grows and its influence expands.
• This includes economic shocks, strategic concerns (South China Sea, Taiwan), and decoupling efforts by the United States and European countries.
• A Carter Center survey (September 2024):
  • Showed surprisingly positive views of the United States among Chinese citizens.
  • Nearly 70% want economic cooperation with the US.
  • Most Chinese want a friendly relationship with the US.
  • Significant support for resolving the Taiwan issue peacefully.
  • 55\% agree that the Taiwan problem should not be resolved if there are any circumstances.
  • 24\% want unification.
• China's soft power efforts, like Confucius Institutes, have faced controversy.
• The US-China relationship has evolved from partnership to rivalry and, now, adversity.
• Image challenges stem from China's political system.
• The perception of China is influenced by its status as a "big and bad" power.
• Unlike Russia, China has not engaged in war for 40 years.
• China's economy is facing challenges: PMI down to 50 (indicating confidence).
• The US also has economic result, released first quarter economic number is 0.3. (down for the last two years).
• The upcoming tariffs on Chinese goods introduce uncertainty in the relationship between China and the USA.
• It is crucial to remain curious about Chinese politics, society, and economy.