Untitled Flashcards Set

Unit 8 Notes

AP Psychology - Module 37 Notes

Homeostasis

  • Maintenance of a steady internal state (e.g., body temperature regulation).

  • The body works like a thermostat to maintain balance.

Incentives

  • External stimuli (positive or negative) that lure or repel us.

Optimum Arousal Theory

  • Some motivated behaviors increase arousal.

  • High-arousal seekers enjoy intense music, novel foods, and risky activities.

  • Yerkes-Dodson Law:

    • Moderate arousal leads to optimal performance.

    • Too much arousal causes stress and decreases performance.

Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow)

  • Needs are met in order from basic survival to self-fulfillment.

  1. Physiological Needs: Food, water, warmth, rest.

  2. Safety Needs: Security, safety.

  3. Belongingness & Love Needs: Intimate relationships, friendships.

  4. Esteem Needs: Prestige, feeling of accomplishment.

  5. Self-Actualization: Achieving full potential, including creative activities.

AP Psychology - Module 38 Notes

Hunger Motivation
Physiology of Hunger

  • A.L. Washburn's Experiment: Swallowed a balloon to study stomach contractions and hunger pangs.

  • Stomach pangs are not the only cause of hunger—rats without stomachs still felt hunger.

  • Glucose: Main energy source in the body; when low, the stomach, intestines, and liver signal the brain to trigger hunger.

  • Hypothalamus: Controls hunger by responding to blood chemistry and neural signals.

  • Appetite Hormones:

    • Ghrelin – Increases hunger

    • Insulin – Regulates blood sugar

    • Leptin – Decreases hunger

    • Orexin – Increases hunger

    • PYY – Decreases hunger

  • Set Point Theory:

    • The body maintains a "weight thermostat"; when weight drops, hunger increases, and metabolism slows to regain weight.

    • Heredity influences set point.

  • Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR):

    • Energy expenditure at rest; varies by individual.

Psychology of Hunger

  • Memory of the last meal influences when we feel hungry.

  • Taste Preferences:

    • Influenced by body chemistry and environment.

    • Carbohydrates increase serotonin levels, leading to calming effects.

Obesity & Weight Control

  • Physiology of Obesity: Fat is an efficient energy store.

  • Genetic Influence: Body weight is partly inherited.

  • Environmental Factors:

    • Sleep deprivation can alter hunger hormones.

    • Social influence affects eating habits.

    • Food supply & accessibility lead to increased consumption.

    • Decreased physical activity contributes to weight gain.

AP Psychology - Module 39 Notes

Physiology of Sex

  • Masters & Johnson’s Sexual Response Cycle (Four Stages):

    • Excitement Phase – Genitals engorge with blood, vaginal lubrication increases, and breasts enlarge.

    • Plateau Phase – Excitement peaks, breathing and heart rate increase, vaginal secretion continues.

    • Orgasm – Muscle contractions, peak in breathing, pulse, and blood pressure.

    • Resolution Phase – The body returns to an unaroused state. Males enter a Refractory Period, during which another orgasm is not possible.

  • Sexual Dysfunctions: Persistent problems impairing sexual arousal or function.

  • APA Classification of Sexual Disorders:

    • Causes distress to the individual.

    • Involves harm or risk to others.

  • Sex Hormones & Their Effects:

    • Estrogen: Produced in greater amounts in females, contributes to female sex characteristics, peaks during ovulation.

    • Testosterone: Most important male sex hormone; stimulates sex organ development in fetus and puberty.

    • Testosterone Therapy: Increases sexual desire and arousal.

Psychology of Sex

  • Sex is not a basic need but is a strong motivator.

  • Differences in Brain Activity: Males show higher amygdala activity in response to arousing stimuli.

  • Cultural Variability in Arousing Stimuli:

    • 1920s – Men’s legs considered erotic.

    • Middle Ages – Obesity seen as beautiful.

  • Effects of Pornography:

    • Desensitization to explicit content can lower arousal with real-life partners.

    • Unrealistic expectations can negatively impact relationships.

  • The Brain as the Primary Sex Organ:

    • Imagination and psychological stimulation play a significant role in arousal.

Levels of Analysis for Sexual Motivation

Biological Influences

  • Sexual maturity.

  • Sex hormones (especially testosterone).

  • Sexual orientation.

Psychological Influences

  • Exposure to sexually stimulating conditions.

  • Sexual fantasies.

AP Psychology - Module 40 Notes

Social Motivation: Affiliation Needs
Affiliation & The Need to Belong

  • The deep need to belong is a fundamental human motivation.

  • Evolutionary Perspective: Those with strong social bonds were more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on their genes.

The Benefits of Belonging

  • Feelings of love and belonging activate brain reward and safety systems (prefrontal cortex).

  • Attachment Styles:

    • Insecure-Anxious Attachment – Craves acceptance but is highly sensitive to rejection.

    • Insecure-Avoidant Attachment – Avoids closeness and emotional bonds.

  • Social Isolation: Increases risk of mental decline and poor health.

The Pain of Being Shut Out

  • Ostracism (Social Exclusion): Can cause depressed moods, efforts to regain acceptance, or withdrawal.

  • Cyberostracism: Modern social rejection (e.g., being unfriended, ignored messages) triggers real psychological pain.

Connecting & Social Networking

  • Technology & Communication: Cell phones, texting, and social media have changed human interaction.

  • Narcissism: Excessive self-focus; highly narcissistic individuals tend to be more active on social media.

Explaining Affiliation Needs Through Psychological Theories

  1. Evolutionary Perspective – Humans developed a strong need to belong to increase survival and reproduction.

  2. Drive-Reduction Theory – Social connections help reduce the stress of isolation, fulfilling our psychological needs.

  3. Arousal Theory – Seeking social interactions maintains an optimal level of arousal, preventing boredom or distress.

AP Psychology - Module 41 Notes

Emotions: Definition & Theories

  • Emotions are a mix of:

    1. Bodily Arousal (e.g., heart pounding)

    2. Expressive Behaviors (e.g., quickened pace)

    3. Conscious Experience (e.g., thoughts & feelings)

Theories of EmotionEmotional Pathways in the Brain

  • "High Road": Stimulus → Thalamus → Cortex (analyzed & labeled) → Amygdala (emotional response).

  • "Low Road": Stimulus → Amygdala (quick emotional response, bypassing cortex).

  • Amygdala’s Role:

    • Sends more signals to the cortex than it receives from it.

    • Easier for feelings to hijack thinking than for thinking to control feelings.

Theory

Explanation

Example

James-Lange

Emotion arises from our awareness of physiological responses.

"I feel afraid because my heart is pounding."

Cannon-Bard

Bodily responses and emotions occur simultaneously.

"My heart races while I feel afraid."

Schachter-Singer (Two-Factor Theory)

Emotion = Arousal + Cognitive Label

"My heart races, and I label it as fear because of the situation."

Zajonc; LeDoux

Some emotions occur instantly, without conscious thinking.

"I jump at a sound before realizing it's just the wind."

Lazarus

Cognitive appraisal ("Is it dangerous?") sometimes happens without awareness.

"That rustling noise isn't a threat, it's just the wind."

Embodied Emotion & The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Sympathetic Nervous System (Arousing - "Fight or Flight")

  • Pupils dilate

  • Perspiration increases

  • Heart rate & breathing increase

  • Digestion inhibited

  • Stress hormones released

Parasympathetic Nervous System (Calming - "Rest & Digest")

  • Pupils contract

  • Perspiration decreases

  • Heart rate & breathing slow

  • Digestion activated

  • Stress hormones decrease

AP Psychology - Module 42 Notes

Expressed Emotion
Detecting Emotions in Others

  • Eye Contact & Affection: Research shows that prolonged eye contact between male-female strangers can increase feelings of affection.

  • Experience & Emotion Sensitivity: Previous experiences shape our ability to detect emotions (e.g., experiments showing faces morphing from fear to anger).

  • Challenges in Detecting Deception: Despite our skill at reading emotions, deceptive expressions are hard to detect.

  • Text Misinterpretation: Written communication lacks gestures, facial expressions, and tone, leading to misunderstandings.

Gender, Emotion, and Nonverbal Behavior

  • Women vs. Men in Emotional Perception:

    • Judith Hall's research: Women are generally better than men at reading emotional cues.

    • Attribution Bias: Women's emotions are often attributed to personality, while men's are attributed to situational factors.

Culture and Emotional Expression

  • Gestures Vary Across Cultures: Some hand gestures mean different things in different cultures (e.g., the middle finger in the U.S. vs. Japan).

  • Universal Emotional Expressions:

    • Facial expressions (e.g., smiles for happiness) are largely universal across cultures.

    • Music & Emotion: Emotional expressions in music are also recognized cross-culturally.

  • Cultural Differences in Emotional Display: While basic emotions are universal, different cultures express emotions differently (e.g., some cultures are more expressive than others).

The Effects of Facial Expressions

  • William James' "Fake It Till You Make It": Smiling can increase happiness, even if forced.

  • Facial Feedback Effect: Facial expressions can influence emotions, not just reflect them. (E.g., smiling can make you feel happier.)

  • Health Psychology: A subfield of psychology that focuses on how behavior and psychology influence physical health (behavioral medicine).