Untitled Flashcards Set

Unit 8 Notes

AP Psychology - Module 37 Notes

Homeostasis

• Maintenance of a steady internal state (e.g., body temperature regulation).

• The body works like a thermostat to maintain balance.

Incentives

• External stimuli (positive or negative) that lure or repel us.

Optimum Arousal Theory

• Some motivated behaviors increase arousal.

• High-arousal seekers enjoy intense music, novel foods, and risky activities.

• Yerkes-Dodson Law:

  • Moderate arousal leads to optimal performance.

  • Too much arousal causes stress and decreases performance.

Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow)

• Needs are met in order from basic survival to self-fulfillment.

1. Physiological Needs: Food, water, warmth, rest.

2. Safety Needs: Security, safety.

3. Belongingness & Love Needs: Intimate relationships, friendships.

4. Esteem Needs: Prestige, feeling of accomplishment.

5. Self-Actualization: Achieving full potential, including creative activities.

AP Psychology - Module 38 Notes

Hunger Motivation

Physiology of Hunger

• A.L. Washburn's Experiment: Swallowed a balloon to study stomach contractions and hunger pangs.

• Stomach pangs are not the only cause of hunger—rats without stomachs still felt hunger.

• Glucose: Main energy source in the body; when low, the stomach, intestines, and liver signal the brain to trigger hunger.

• Hypothalamus: Controls hunger by responding to blood chemistry and neural signals.

• Appetite Hormones:

  • Ghrelin – Increases hunger

  • Insulin – Regulates blood sugar

  • Leptin – Decreases hunger

  • Orexin – Increases hunger

  • PYY – Decreases hunger

• Set Point Theory:

  • The body maintains a "weight thermostat"; when weight drops, hunger increases, and metabolism slows to regain weight.

  • Heredity influences set point.

• Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR):

  • Energy expenditure at rest; varies by individual.

Psychology of Hunger

• Memory of the last meal influences when we feel hungry.

• Taste Preferences:

  • Influenced by body chemistry and environment.

  • Carbohydrates increase serotonin levels, leading to calming effects.

Obesity & Weight Control

• Physiology of Obesity: Fat is an efficient energy store.

• Genetic Influence: Body weight is partly inherited.

• Environmental Factors:

  • Sleep deprivation can alter hunger hormones.

  • Social influence affects eating habits.

  • Food supply & accessibility lead to increased consumption.

  • Decreased physical activity contributes to weight gain.

AP Psychology - Module 39 Notes

Physiology of Sex

• Masters & Johnson’s Sexual Response Cycle (Four Stages):

  • Excitement Phase – Genitals engorge with blood, vaginal lubrication increases, and breasts enlarge.

  • Plateau Phase – Excitement peaks, breathing and heart rate increase, vaginal secretion continues.

  • Orgasm – Muscle contractions, peak in breathing, pulse, and blood pressure.

  • Resolution Phase – The body returns to an unaroused state. Males enter a Refractory Period, during which another orgasm is not possible.

• Sexual Dysfunctions: Persistent problems impairing sexual arousal or function.

• APA Classification of Sexual Disorders:

  • Causes distress to the individual.

  • Involves harm or risk to others.

• Sex Hormones & Their Effects:

  • Estrogen: Produced in greater amounts in females, contributes to female sex characteristics, peaks during ovulation.

  • Testosterone: Most important male sex hormone; stimulates sex organ development in fetus and puberty.

  • Testosterone Therapy: Increases sexual desire and arousal.

Psychology of Sex

• Sex is not a basic need but is a strong motivator.

• Differences in Brain Activity: Males show higher amygdala activity in response to arousing stimuli.

• Cultural Variability in Arousing Stimuli:

  • 1920s – Men’s legs considered erotic.

  • Middle Ages – Obesity seen as beautiful.

• Effects of Pornography:

  • Desensitization to explicit content can lower arousal with real-life partners.

  • Unrealistic expectations can negatively impact relationships.

• The Brain as the Primary Sex Organ:

  • Imagination and psychological stimulation play a significant role in arousal.

Levels of Analysis for Sexual Motivation

Biological Influences

• Sexual maturity.

• Sex hormones (especially testosterone).

• Sexual orientation.

Psychological Influences

• Exposure to sexually stimulating conditions.

• Sexual fantasies.

AP Psychology - Module 40 Notes

Social Motivation: Affiliation Needs

Affiliation & The Need to Belong

• The deep need to belong is a fundamental human motivation.

• Evolutionary Perspective: Those with strong social bonds were more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on their genes.

The Benefits of Belonging

• Feelings of love and belonging activate brain reward and safety systems (prefrontal cortex).

• Attachment Styles:

  • Insecure-Anxious Attachment – Craves acceptance but is highly sensitive to rejection.

  • Insecure-Avoidant Attachment – Avoids closeness and emotional bonds.

• Social Isolation: Increases risk of mental decline and poor health.

The Pain of Being Shut Out

• Ostracism (Social Exclusion): Can cause depressed moods, efforts to regain acceptance, or withdrawal.

• Cyberostracism: Modern social rejection (e.g., being unfriended, ignored messages) triggers real psychological pain.

Connecting & Social Networking

• Technology & Communication: Cell phones, texting, and social media have changed human interaction.

• Narcissism: Excessive self-focus; highly narcissistic individuals tend to be more active on social media.

Explaining Affiliation Needs Through Psychological Theories

1. Evolutionary Perspective – Humans developed a strong need to belong to increase survival and reproduction.

2. Drive-Reduction Theory – Social connections help reduce the stress of isolation, fulfilling our psychological needs.

3. Arousal Theory – Seeking social interactions maintains an optimal level of arousal, preventing boredom or distress.

AP Psychology - Module 41 Notes

Emotions: Definition & Theories

• Emotions are a mix of:

  1. Bodily Arousal (e.g., heart pounding)

  2. Expressive Behaviors (e.g., quickened pace)

  3. Conscious Experience (e.g., thoughts & feelings)

Theories of EmotionEmotional Pathways in the Brain

• "High Road": Stimulus → Thalamus → Cortex (analyzed & labeled) → Amygdala (emotional response).

• "Low Road": Stimulus → Amygdala (quick emotional response, bypassing cortex).

• Amygdala’s Role:

  • Sends more signals to the cortex than it receives from it.

  • Easier for feelings to hijack thinking than for thinking to control feelings.

Embodied Emotion & The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Sympathetic Nervous System (Arousing - "Fight or Flight")

• Pupils dilate

• Perspiration increases

• Heart rate & breathing increase

• Digestion inhibited

• Stress hormones released

Parasympathetic Nervous System (Calming - "Rest & Digest")

• Pupils contract

• Perspiration decreases

• Heart rate & breathing slow

• Digestion activated

• Stress hormones decrease

AP Psychology - Module 42 Notes

Expressed Emotion

Detecting Emotions in Others

• Eye Contact & Affection: Research shows that prolonged eye contact between male-female strangers can increase feelings of affection.

• Experience & Emotion Sensitivity: Previous experiences shape our ability to detect emotions (e.g., experiments showing faces morphing from fear to anger).

• Challenges in Detecting Deception: Despite our skill at reading emotions, deceptive expressions are hard to detect.

• Text Misinterpretation: Written communication lacks gestures, facial expressions, and tone, leading to misunderstandings.

Gender, Emotion, and Nonverbal Behavior

• Women vs. Men in Emotional Perception:

  • Judith Hall's research: Women are generally better than men at reading emotional cues.

  • Attribution Bias: Women's emotions are often attributed to personality, while men's are attributed to situational factors.

Culture and Emotional Expression

• Gestures Vary Across Cultures: Some hand gestures mean different things in different cultures (e.g., the middle finger in the U.S. vs. Japan).

• Universal Emotional Expressions:

  • Facial expressions (e.g., smiles for happiness) are largely universal across cultures.

  • Music & Emotion: Emotional expressions in music are also recognized cross-culturally.

• Cultural Differences in Emotional Display: While basic emotions are universal, different cultures express emotions differently (e.g., some cultures are more expressive than others).

The Effects of Facial Expressions

• William James' "Fake It Till You Make It": Smiling can increase happiness, even if forced.

• Facial Feedback Effect: Facial expressions can influence emotions, not just reflect them. (E.g., smiling can make you feel happier.)

• Health Psychology: A subfield of psychology that focuses on how behavior and psychology influence physical health (behavioral medicine).