Motivation

Motivation and Theories

Motivation – The process that initiates, directs, and sustains goal-oriented behaviors.

Instinct Theory/Evolutionary Perspective – The idea that behavior is driven by instincts, which are unlearned, fixed patterns of behavior in a species.

Drive Reduction Theory – The theory that motivation arises from the need to satisfy biological drives and maintain balance in the body.

• Homeostasis – The body’s tendency to maintain a stable internal state (e.g., temperature, hydration).

Arousal Theory – The idea that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal, rather than eliminating it.

• Yerkes-Dodson Law – Performance improves with arousal up to a point but decreases if arousal is too high.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs – A theory that humans are motivated by a progression of needs, starting with basic survival and leading to self-actualization.

Motivation of Hunger

Stomach Contractions – Early research suggested hunger is triggered by stomach contractions, but hunger is also influenced by the brain and hormones.

Lateral Hypothalamus – The brain area that stimulates hunger; when damaged, an individual may stop eating.

Ventromedial Hypothalamus – The brain area that signals when to stop eating; when damaged, an individual may overeat.

Set Point Theory – The idea that the body has a natural weight range and works to maintain it through hunger and metabolism adjustments.

Obesity – A condition of excessive body weight that increases health risks.

Bulimia – An eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging.

• Binging – Consuming large amounts of food in a short period.

• Purging – Using vomiting, laxatives, or excessive exercise to rid the body of consumed food.

Anorexia – An eating disorder characterized by self-starvation and an intense fear of gaining weight.

Causes of Eating Disorders – Biological, psychological, and social factors, including genetics, body image concerns, and cultural pressures.

Sexual Motivation

Kinsey Study – A pioneering study on human sexual behavior that challenged social norms.

Masters and Johnson Study – Researchers who studied the physiological aspects of human sexual response.

Sexual Response Cycle – The four-stage model of sexual response: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.

Sexual Orientation – A person’s enduring pattern of attraction to others (e.g., heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual).

Causes of Sexual Orientation – Research suggests biological influences, including genetics and prenatal hormone exposure.

Achievement and Social Motivations

Need for Achievement – The desire to accomplish goals, excel, and succeed.

• Intrinsic Motivators – Motivation driven by internal satisfaction (e.g., curiosity, enjoyment).

• Extrinsic Motivators – Motivation driven by external rewards (e.g., money, recognition).

Need for Power – The desire to influence and control others.

Need for Intimacy – The desire for close, meaningful relationships.

Flow – A state of deep concentration and enjoyment in an activity.

Industrial/Organizational Psychology

Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychology – The study of human behavior in workplaces to improve productivity and well-being.

• Personnel Psychology – Focuses on hiring, training, and evaluating employees.

• Organizational Psychology – Examines workplace culture, leadership, and motivation.

• Human Factors Psychology – Studies how people interact with technology and design.

Theory X Management – Assumes employees are lazy and need strict control.

Theory Y Management – Assumes employees are motivated and thrive with autonomy.

Task Leadership – Leadership focused on setting goals and achieving efficiency.

Social Leadership – Leadership focused on teamwork and collaboration.

Conflict and Decision-Making

Approach-Approach Conflict – Choosing between two desirable options.

Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict – Choosing between two undesirable options.

Approach-Avoidance Conflict – A decision that has both positive and negative aspects.

Emotion and Theories

James-Lange Theory of Emotion – Emotions occur as a result of physiological reactions (e.g., "I feel afraid because my heart is racing").

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion – Emotions and physiological responses occur simultaneously (e.g., "I feel afraid and my heart races at the same time").

Singer-Schachter Two-Factor Theory of Emotion – Emotions depend on both physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation.

Hans Selye’s Contributions – Developed the General Adaptation Syndrome model of stress response.

Richard Lazarus’s Theory of Emotion – Suggests emotions are based on cognitive appraisal (how we interpret a situation).

Joseph LeDoux’s Theory of Emotion – Some emotions take a "low road" (quick, unconscious response) while others take a "high road" (thoughtful processing).

Paul Ekman’s Research on Cross-Cultural Displays of Emotion – Found that basic facial expressions are universal across cultures.

Facial Feedback Hypothesis – The idea that facial expressions can influence emotions (e.g., smiling can make you feel happier).

Opponent-Process Theory of Emotion – Emotions trigger opposing emotions (e.g., excitement may lead to subsequent exhaustion).

Two-Track Brain – The brain processes emotions on two levels: fast (automatic) and slow (thoughtful).

Spillover Effect – Arousal from one event can influence emotions in another situation (e.g., excitement from a game leading to aggressive behavior).

Feel-Good, Do-Good Phenomenon – The tendency to help others when in a good mood.

Adaptation-Level Phenomenon – The tendency to judge experiences based on past experiences (e.g., getting a raise but soon returning to the same level of happiness).

Relative Deprivation – Feeling worse off by comparing oneself to others.

Catharsis – The belief that releasing emotions (e.g., through venting or aggression) reduces stress, though research suggests it may not be effective.

Gender Differences in Emotion – Research suggests women generally express emotions more intensely and are better at reading emotions.

Universal Emotions – Basic emotions recognized across all cultures, including happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust.

Stress and Health Psychology

Fight-or-Flight Response – The body’s automatic response to perceived threats, preparing for action.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) – Selye’s three-stage model of stress response.

• Alarm – Initial reaction to stress, activating the sympathetic nervous system.

• Resistance – The body maintains heightened response but starts to adapt.

• Exhaustion – Prolonged stress depletes resources, leading to burnout or illness.

Type A Personality – Competitive, high-strung, and prone to stress-related illnesses.

Type B Personality – Relaxed, patient, and less prone to stress.

Coronary Heart Disease – A stress-related condition where arteries narrow due to plaque buildup, increasing heart attack risk.

Aerobic Exercise Benefits – Regular exercise reduces stress, improves mood, and promotes overall health.

Weight Discrimination – Bias against individuals based on their weight, impacting mental health and social opportunities.

Biofeedback – A technique that uses monitoring devices to help people gain control over physiological functions (e.g., heart rate, muscle tension).

Lewin’s Motivational Conflicts Theory – A theory describing different types of decision-making conflicts (approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, and approach-avoidance conflicts).