Psych 2040 Class Notes pdf

Page 1: Introduction to Social Psychology

• Definition of Social Psychology

  • Scientific study of how we feel, think, and behave towards others and how they influence us.

• Foundational Figures

  • Kurt Lewin: Known as the "father of social psychology"; emphasized dynamic interactions among people using scientific methods.

  • Leon Festinger: Contributed to the establishment of social psychology as a scientific discipline.

• Social Cognition

  • Involves understanding our knowledge through experiences within our social environments.

  • Development of knowledge structures related to social interaction.

• Social Neuroscience

  • Examines the interplay between social behavior and brain activity.

The Person and the Social Situation

• Social Situation

  • Refers to the people we interact with daily and the environments in which these interactions occur.

• Social Influence

  • Explores how our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are affected by others and vice versa.

• Behavior Equation

  • Lewin's formula: B = f(P, E), indicating that behavior is a function of the person (P) and the environment (E).

  • Suggests individual behavior is influenced by personal characteristics and contextual factors.

Evolutionary Adaptation and Human Characteristics

• Evolutionary Adaptation

  • Adaptation to the environment through natural selection.

• Fitness

  • Refers to genetic adaptations beneficial for survival and reproduction.

• Motivations

  • Self-concern: Protecting oneself and close social relations.

  • Other-concern: Desire for acceptance and social connection.

  • Kin Selection: Strategies promoting reproductive success of relatives.

The Social Situation Creates Powerful Social Influence

• Key Principle

  • Individual traits are important, but social situations exert stronger influence.

• Social Support

  • Emotional comfort we gain from family, friends, and colleagues.

Page 2: Cultural Norms and Social Cognition

• Culture

  • A group sharing common social norms and living in a defined geographic area.

• Individualism vs. Collectivism

  • Individualism: Emphasis on self-reliance and individual achievement (typical in Western cultures).

  • Collectivism: Focuses on group cohesion and interdependence.

Social Cognition: Understanding Others

• Social Cognition

  • Refers to processes that help understand behavior in self and others.

• Schema

  • Frameworks that help organize knowledge about individuals and groups.

• Attitude

  • Information structure that reflects our evaluations of others.

Social Affect: Feelings about the Self and Others

• Affect

  • Encompasses feelings experienced daily.

• Mood

  • Longer-lasting emotional states, either positive or negative.

• Emotions

  • Brief, intense feelings with physiological responses.

Social Behavior and Exchange

• Social Exchange

  • Involves sharing resources, emotions, and outcomes between individuals.

• Reciprocal Altruism

  • Helping others without expecting immediate benefits in return.

Conducting Research in Social Psychology

• Importance of Scientific Research

  • Empirical Evidence: Relies on observable data collection and analysis.

• Hindsight Bias

  • The inclination to believe that one could have predicted an outcome after it has occurred.

• Research Hypothesis

  • A statement regarding the expected relationship between variables.

• Falsifiability

  • Requirement for a hypothesis to be tested and potentially disproven.

• Correlational Research

  • Investigates the relationship between two or more variables without implying causation.

  • Correlation Coefficient (r): Ranges from -1 to +1, indicating strength and direction of the relationship.

Page 3: Social Cognition and Learning

• Learning Processes

  • Conditioning: Connects stimuli with responses.

  • Operant Learning: Gaining knowledge through behavior consequences.

  • Shaping: Reinforcing successive approximations of desired behavior.

Associational and Observational Learning

• Associational Learning

  • Objects or events are linked with natural responses (e.g., Pavlov's dogs).

• Observational Learning (Modeling)

  • Learning by observing others’ actions (Bandura's studies).

Schemas as Social Knowledge

• Schemas

  • Mental frameworks organizing knowledge (e.g., restaurant schema).

• Assimilation vs. Accommodation

  • Assimilation: Integrating new info into existing schemas.

  • Accommodation: Adjusting schemas to align with new info.

Maintenance of Schemas

• Confirmation Bias

  • Preference for information confirming existing beliefs.

• Reconstructive Memory Bias

  • Tendency to recall information that aligns with current beliefs.

• Self-fulfilling Prophecy

  • Expectations influencing behaviors that bring about the expected outcome.

Salience, Accessibility and Heuristics

• Salience

  • Features attracting attention in social judgments.

• Heuristics

  • Mental shortcuts for decision-making.

  • Representative Heuristic: Judgments based on how closely something matches expectations.

  • Availability Heuristic: Estimating frequency of events based on retrieval ease.

Page 4: Cognitive Biases

• Cognitive Accessibility

  • How easily a schema is activated in memory for processing information.

• Processing Fluency

  • Ease of processing information in varying environments.

• False Consensus Bias

  • Overestimating commonality of one's beliefs in others.

• Projection Bias

  • Assuming others share similar cognitive and emotional states.

Additional Cognitive Biases

• Counterfactual Thinking

  • Considering alternative outcomes for events.

• Overconfidence Bias

  • Excessive confidence in personal abilities and judgments.

• Optical Illusions

  • Believing in more positive outcomes for oneself compared to others (Optimistic Bias).

Memory and State Dependence

• Mood/State-Dependent Memory

  • Better recall of memories when in the same mood as when learned.

• Mood Congruency Effect

  • Enhanced retrieval of memories matching current mood.

• Context-Dependent Memory

  • Improved recall in similar contexts to when learning occurred.

Missed Attribution and Chapter Transition

• Misattribution of Arousal

  • Incorrectly identifying the source of felt arousal.

Page 5: Understanding the Self

• The Self

  • Our personal identity and awareness.

• Self-Concept

  • Cognitive assessment of social, physical, and academic competence.

• Self-Schemas

  • Various cognitive representations of the self.

The Cognitive Self and Social Identity

• Self-Reference Effect

  • Easier memory processing when information relates to the self.

• Social Identity

  • Identity derived from group memberships; relates to individualism vs. collectivism.

The Role of Social Groups

• Social Identity Theory

  • Identity and self-esteem are influenced by social group memberships.

• Self-Complexity

  • Having many varied self-representations influences identity.

• Self-Awareness

  • Focus on personal self-concept.

Self-Discrepancy and Cognitive Dissonance

• Self-Discrepancy Theory

  • Conflicts between actual and ideal self-concepts cause discomfort.

• Cognitive Dissonance

  • Discomfort from self-inconsistent behaviors and beliefs.

The Feeling Self and Self-Esteem

• Self-Esteem

  • Overall evaluation of oneself that can be positive or negative.

• Narcissism

  • Characterized by excessive self-admiration and inflated self-esteem.

The Social Self and External Influences

• The Looking-Glass Self

  • Perception of how others view us influences our self-image.

• Labeling Bias

  • Influence of labels on self-perception and expectations.

Comparison and Self-Affirmation

• Social Comparison

  • Assessing our attitudes and behaviors against those of others.

  • Downward Comparison: Comparing with less fortunate others.

  • Upward Comparison: Comparing with more fortunate others.

  • Basking in Reflexive Glory: Enhancing self-esteem via group achievements.

Page 6: Managing Self-Perception

• Self-Evaluation Maintenance Theory

  • Self-esteem can be challenged by comparison to superior others.

• Reputation Management

  • Long-term strategies for maintaining a positive public image.

• Self-Monitoring

  • Variability in behavior adjustments in response to social cues.

  • High Self-Monitors: Adapt to fit in socially.

  • Low Self-Monitors: More authentic in social interactions.