AP Government & Politics Ch. 12 GQs

• Fear of Tyranny: Balanced power between branches to prevent authoritarian rule.

• Legislative Primacy: Made Congress the key policymaking body.

• Checks and Balances: Limited both executive and legislative power.

• Bicameral Legislature: Created the House (population-based) and Senate (equal state representation).

• People’s Representation: House members serve shorter terms to stay accountable to voters.

• Elite Deliberation: Senate designed for more experienced, stable governance.

• Taxation Power: Revenue bills originate in the House to reflect public interests.

• Foreign Policy Role: Senate given power over treaties and major decisions.

• Republican Principles: Ensured responsiveness to the people's will.

Different Length of Terms for Senators and Representatives

• House (2-year terms): Ensured representatives stayed accountable to the people’s changing opinions.

• Senate (6-year terms): Provided stability and insulation from short-term political pressures.

• Balance of Power: Prevented rash decision-making while keeping the government responsive.

Staggered Elections for Senators

• Continuity in Government: Ensured that only one-third of the Senate changed at a time, preventing drastic shifts.

• Institutional Stability: Maintained experienced legislators in office to guide long-term policies.

• Prevention of Mass Political Swings: Reduced the influence of sudden political or public opinion shifts.

17th Amendment and More Power to the People

• Direct Election of Senators: Shifted power from state legislatures to voters, increasing democratic representation.

• Greater Accountability: Made senators more responsive to public opinion rather than political elites.

• Reduced Corruption: Minimized opportunities for state governments to engage in political deals over Senate seats.

Definition of Incumbents

• Incumbents: Individuals who currently hold a political office and are running for reelection.

Why Incumbents Have an Advantage

Stronger Name Recognition

• Already known to voters from previous elections and time in office.

• Familiarity makes people more likely to vote for them.

Easier Access to Media Coverage

• Media regularly covers incumbents’ activities as part of government reporting.

• Challengers struggle to get similar attention.

Redistricting

• District lines are often drawn to benefit the incumbent’s political party.

• Gives them an electoral advantage over challengers.

Franking Privilege

• Can send free mail to constituents to maintain communication.

• Keeps their name and achievements in voters’ minds.

Campaign Contributions

• Donors prefer giving money to candidates who are likely to win.

• Incumbents receive the majority of political donations.

Casework

• Help constituents with government issues, building voter loyalty.

• Positive personal interactions increase reelection chances.

Definition of Reapportionment

• Reapportionment: The process of reallocating seats in the House of Representatives based on population changes recorded in the census.

How Reapportionment is Determined

• Conducted every 10 years after the U.S. Census.

• States gain or lose House seats based on population shifts.

Definition of Redistricting

• Redistricting: The process of redrawing congressional district boundaries within a state to reflect changes in representation from reapportionment.

How Redistricting Can Be Helpful and Harmful

Helpful

• Ensures equal representation by adjusting districts to match population changes.

• Can help create fairer elections by balancing voter distribution.

Harmful

• Can lead to gerrymandering, where district lines are drawn to favor a political party.

• May weaken minority or opposition voices, reducing fair competition.

Advantages of Gerrymandering for Candidates

• Creates "safe seats": Districts are drawn to heavily favor one party, making it easier for candidates from that party to win.

• Secures incumbency: Protects current officeholders by ensuring they have a loyal voter base.

• Maximizes party influence: Can distribute voters strategically to win more districts with fewer votes.

Disadvantages of Gerrymandering for Candidates

• Limits competition: Reduces fair electoral challenges, making elections less democratic.

• Encourages extreme partisanship: Candidates in "safe" districts cater to their party's base, discouraging moderation.

• Can backfire: Unexpected shifts in voter demographics may lead to unfavorable election outcomes.

Impact of a Safe Seat on a Member of Congress’s Actions

• Encourages partisanship: Members can take extreme partisan stances without fear of losing reelection.

• Reduces incentive for moderation: With a secure voter base, there is little reason to appeal to opposing party members.

• Limits accountability: Representatives can ignore opposing views within their district, knowing their reelection is almost guaranteed.

Why Compromising in Congress Has Become Less Likely

• Increased political polarization: Republicans have become more conservative, and Democrats more liberal, reducing common ground.

• Less competitive districts: Safe seats mean members do not need to appeal to a broad electorate, leading to rigid ideological positions.

• Fear of primary challenges: Representatives worry more about being challenged by a more extreme candidate from their own party than by a general election opponent.

Impact on Politics and Redistricting

• Gridlock in Congress: Fewer bipartisan efforts lead to legislative stagnation.

• Public discontent: Congress is viewed negatively due to lack of compromise, even though individual members remain popular in their districts.

• Manipulation of district maps: Redistricting is used strategically to reinforce partisan divides and secure long-term control.

Why Did the Framers Trust Congress with More Powers Than the President?

• Fear of a Strong Executive: The framers wanted to avoid a repeat of British rule, where a monarch had excessive power.

• Representation of the People: Congress, especially the House, was seen as closer to the people and more accountable through frequent elections.

• Checks and Balances: Granting Congress more powers ensured that no single branch, especially the executive, could dominate government.

• Economic Control: Powers like taxation, spending, and borrowing were given to Congress to prevent financial control from being concentrated in one person.

Why Is the Necessary and Proper Clause Considered to Expand Congressional Power?

• Broad Interpretation: Allows Congress to pass laws beyond those explicitly listed in the Constitution.

• Elasticity: Enables Congress to adapt to new challenges, such as healthcare, national security, and technology regulation.

• Judicial Support: Supreme Court rulings have often upheld laws passed under this clause, reinforcing its power.

• Legislative Flexibility: Gives Congress the ability to address issues not foreseen by the framers, expanding its role in governance.

Trustee Model

• A legislator votes based on their own judgment and conscience, even if it contradicts constituents' views.

Instructed Delegate Model

• A legislator follows the views of their constituents, even if it conflicts with their personal opinions.

Politico

• A hybrid approach where a legislator acts as a delegate on important issues and as a trustee on less significant matters.

Pork Barrel

• Legislators secure funds for specific projects in their district, aiming to benefit their constituents directly.

Earmarks

• Designations in spending bills for specific projects or funds, typically benefiting a legislator's district.

Casework

• Personal assistance to constituents, such as helping them navigate government agencies or secure benefits.

Main powers of Congress:

Tax and Spend

• Congress has the authority to levy taxes and allocate government spending, influencing national priorities.

Declare War

• Only Congress can declare war, making it central to national security decisions.

Establish Courts

• Congress creates and organizes the federal judiciary, shaping the legal system.

Regulate Armed Forces

• Congress controls the military, including its funding and oversight.

Oversight

• The process by which Congress monitors and checks the executive branch to ensure laws are implemented as intended.

3 Ways Congress Carries Out Oversight

1. Congressional Hearings
   
   

   • Government officials, bureaucrats, and interest groups testify on law implementation and its impact.

2. Confirmation Hearings
   
   

   • Congress reviews and approves presidential appointees overseeing executive departments and agencies.

3. Investigations
   
   

   • Congress investigates how laws are implemented and addresses any wrongdoing by government officials.

Congressional Agenda Setting and Civic Engagement

• Congress’s agenda setting influences civic engagement by defining national issues that stimulate public discussion and action.

How Agenda Setting Stimulates Civic Engagement

1. Public Discourse
   
   

   • By addressing issues raised by constituents or interest groups, Congress brings attention to specific concerns, encouraging people to engage and advocate for solutions.

2. Case Example: Parkland Shooting
   
   

   • After the 2018 Parkland shooting, student activism led to agenda-setting efforts, with students advocating for gun-safety laws, which energized voters and affected mid-term elections.

3. Policy Debate and Civic Participation
   
   

   • As Congress sets the agenda, citizens are motivated to learn, discuss, and form positions on national issues, enhancing their political participation and involvement.

How Congress Manages Societal Conflict

• Representation of Diverse Views:
  
  

  • Congress represents a wide array of interests and perspectives, ensuring that different societal groups are heard.

• Taking Stands on Issues:
  
  

  • Legislators publicly advocate for positions, reflecting the ideological divides on issues like wages, abortion, and social policies.

• Compromise and Negotiation:
  
  

  • Congress addresses conflict through negotiation, often finding middle ground on divisive topics to create legislation that balances competing interests.

• Constituents:
  
  

  • The individuals who live in a legislator's district or state and are represented by them in Congress.

• Constituency:
  
  

  • The group of constituents that a legislator represents, typically within a specific district (House) or state (Senate).

• Introduction: A bill is formally proposed by a member of Congress.

• Committee Review: Subgroups of legislators review the bill.

• House and Senate Approval: A majority in both chambers must approve the bill.

• Conference Committee Reconciliation: Differences between versions are resolved.

• Presidential Approval: The president signs the bill into law or vetoes it.

• Hopper: A wooden box in the House where bills are placed to be officially introduced.

• Joint Referral: A former practice where bills were referred to two committees simultaneously in the House.

• Lead Committee: The primary committee to which a bill is referred for review and consideration in the House.

Definitions:

• Standing Committee: A permanent committee in Congress with a defined legislative jurisdiction.

• Select Committee: A temporary congressional committee created to consider specific policy issues or address a particular concern.

• Joint Committee: A bicameral committee composed of members from both the House and Senate.

• Subcommittee: A smaller committee within a standing committee that handles specific areas of its jurisdiction.

Process After a Bill Is Favored by a Committee:

1. Agency Review – Executive agencies provide written comments on the measure.

2. Hearings – Experts, interest groups, and concerned citizens provide testimony on the bill.

3. Markup – The committee suggests changes and amendments to the bill.

4. Report – The committee issues a report explaining the bill and its intent before full chamber consideration.

What Happens to a Bill in the Rules Committee?

• The House Rules Committee decides the length of debate and scope of amendments allowed.

• It establishes limits on floor debate and sets conditions for how the bill will be discussed.

• Important bills often receive strict limits on amendments.

• The Senate does not have a Rules Committee; instead, unanimous consent agreements determine debate terms.

Definitions

• Filibuster: A procedural tactic in the Senate where a senator speaks for an unlimited time to delay or prevent a vote.

• Cloture: A procedure requiring 60 senators to vote to end a filibuster and limit further debate.

• Nuclear Option: A Senate rule change that allows certain actions (e.g., judicial nominations) to pass with a simple majority instead of 60 votes.

• Conference Committee: A bicameral, bipartisan committee that reconciles differences between House and Senate versions of a bill.

How a Bill Can Be Kept from Dying Without Unanimous Consent

• Cloture Vote: If a bill faces a filibuster, a cloture motion can be filed to end debate with a 60-vote supermajority.

• Conference Committee: If the House and Senate pass different versions of a bill, a conference committee works out a compromise.

• Reintroduction: If a bill dies, it can be reintroduced in the next congressional session.

• Discharge Petition: In the House, 218 members can sign a petition to force a bill out of committee for a floor vote.

Differences Between House and Senate Legislative Process

• House
  
  

  • Uses the Rules Committee to schedule debate and set amendment rules.

  • No filibusters allowed.

  • Discharge petitions can be used to force a bill out of committee.

  • Only germane (relevant) amendments can be added to a bill.

• Senate
  
  

  • Relies on unanimous consent agreements to set debate rules.

  • Filibusters are allowed; can be ended with a cloture vote (60 senators).

  • No discharge petitions to extract bills from committees.

  • Nongermane (unrelated) amendments can be added to a bill.

Pocket Veto

• A pocket veto occurs when the president takes no action on a bill for 10 days while Congress is adjourned, causing the bill to die.

• Unlike a regular veto, Congress cannot override a pocket veto.

Effect of a Pocket Veto

• Prevents a bill from becoming law without requiring the president to issue a formal veto.

• Eliminates the chance for Congress to override the decision.

Checks and Balances Example

• Executive checks Legislative: The president can block a bill passed by Congress without issuing a veto.

• Legislative check is limited: Congress cannot override a pocket veto, unlike a regular veto.

Speaker of the House: Mike Johnson (R-LA)

• Presides over House sessions, maintaining order and decorum.

• Determines legislative agenda and schedules floor debates.

• Assigns members to committees and influences committee leadership.

House Majority Leader: Steve Scalise (R-LA)

• Assists the Speaker in planning and implementing the legislative agenda.

• Manages the daily legislative operations on the House floor.

• Coordinates with committee chairs and party members to advance bills.

Majority Whip: Tom Emmer (R-MN)

• Gathers votes from majority party members for key legislation.

• Communicates the party's position and strategy to members.

• Ensures party discipline and unity during votes.

House Minority Leader: Hakeem Jeffries (D-NY)

• Leads the minority party in the House, formulating and articulating policy positions.

• Serves as the primary spokesperson for the minority party.

• Negotiates with majority party leadership to influence legislation.

Minority Whip: Katherine Clark (D-MA)

• Assists the Minority Leader in managing the party's legislative strategy.

• Mobilizes minority party members for votes and debates.

• Communicates the minority party's stance on legislation to its members.

President Pro Tempore of the Senate

• Responsibilities:

  • Presides over Senate sessions in the absence of the Vice President.

  • Third in the line of presidential succession, following the Vice President and the Speaker of the House.

  • Traditionally, the role is honorary, given to the longest-serving member of the majority party.

• Current Officeholder:

  • Chuck Grassley (R-IA)

Senate Majority Leader

• Responsibilities:

  • Manages the legislative process to ensure the passage of favored bills.

  • Schedules debates on legislation in consultation with the Senate Minority Leader.

  • Acts as the spokesperson for the majority party in the Senate.

• Current Officeholder:

  • Mitch McConnell (R-KY)

Senate Minority Leader

• Responsibilities:

  • Develops the minority party's legislative strategy.

  • Serves as the spokesperson for the minority party in the Senate.

  • Engages in negotiations with the majority party to influence legislation.

• Current Officeholder:

  • Chuck Schumer (D-NY)

Logrolling

• The practice of lawmakers exchanging political favors, such as voting for each other’s proposed legislation.

• Common in legislative bodies to secure support for bills that may not pass on their own.

• Senators represent entire states, which tend to have more ideologically diverse populations than House districts.

• To appeal to a broader range of constituents, senators often moderate their views and are more open to compromise.

• The Senate, while becoming more partisan, still allows for more bipartisan negotiations than the House.

• Interest groups influence elections by endorsing candidates and mobilizing their members to vote.

• They lobby Congress by providing information and financial contributions to sway legislative decisions.

• The president can influence Congress by advocating for or against legislation, swaying members of their party to vote accordingly.

• Most voters do not closely monitor congressional activities or their representatives' votes.

• Only a small percentage of voters, known as the attentive public, actively track policy debates.

• Lack of vigilance means representatives may not always feel immediate pressure from constituents.

• Women were motivated to run due to objections to President Trump's rhetoric and Republican policy stances, especially on issues like healthcare and state budgets.

• The #MeToo movement, protests against sexual harassment, and anti-gun violence demonstrations fueled a broader social movement encouraging women to run.

• Many incumbents, particularly Republicans, retired in the face of strong female challengers, opening up opportunities for women candidates.

• In 2018, Latinos gained significant representation in Congress with 10 new Latino representatives joining the 30 incumbents, bringing the total to 40 Latino members in the House.

• As of 2021, four Latinos served in the U.S. Senate, including Senators Catherine Cortez Masto, Robert Menendez, Marco Rubio, and Ted Cruz.

• African American representation in the House also reached historic highs, continuing to grow with each election since the civil rights movement of the 1960s.