topic 10 biology practice

Multiple Choice Questions (90 Questions):

 * Which process describes the fusion of a sperm and an egg cell?

   (a) Mitosis

   (b) Meiosis

   (c) Fertilization

   (d) Differentiation

 * In humans, where does fertilization typically occur?

   (a) Uterus

   (b) Ovary

   (c) Fallopian tube

   (d) Vagina

 * What is the primary function of the placenta?

   (a) To produce sperm cells

   (b) To protect the developing fetus from pathogens

   (c) To exchange nutrients and wastes between the mother and fetus

   (d) To produce hormones that regulate the menstrual cycle

 * Which of the following structures produces egg cells in females?

   (a) Uterus

   (b) Ovaries

   (c) Vagina

   (d) Fallopian tubes

 * What is the name for the process of cell division that results in the formation of sperm and egg cells?

   (a) Mitosis

   (b) Fertilization

   (c) Meiosis

   (d) Differentiation

 * The menstrual cycle in females is primarily regulated by:

   (a) Digestive enzymes

   (b) Respiratory gases

   (c) Hormones

   (d) Nerve impulses

 * Which hormone is primarily responsible for the development of secondary sexual characteristics in males?

   (a) Estrogen

   (b) Progesterone

   (c) Testosterone

   (d) Insulin

 * What is the function of the uterus during pregnancy?

   (a) To produce egg cells

   (b) To nourish the developing fetus directly

   (c) To provide a site for implantation and fetal development

   (d) To produce sperm cells

 * Which of the following is the male gamete?

   (a) Ovum

   (b) Sperm

   (c) Zygote

   (d) Embryo

 * What is the female gamete?

   (a) Sperm

   (b) Zygote

   (c) Embryo

   (d) Ovum

 * Following fertilization, the single cell formed is called a:

   (a) Gamete

   (b) Zygote

   (c) Embryo

   (d) Fetus

 * Which process involves the development of specialized cells from a zygote?

   (a) Fertilization

   (b) Meiosis

   (c) Mitosis

   (d) Differentiation

 * What is the function of the amniotic fluid surrounding the fetus?

   (a) To provide nutrients

   (b) To remove waste products

   (c) To cushion and protect the fetus

   (d) To produce hormones

 * The release of an egg cell from the ovary is known as:

   (a) Menstruation

   (b) Ovulation

   (c) Fertilization

   (d) Implantation

 * Which structure transports the egg cell from the ovary to the uterus?

   (a) Uterus

   (b) Vagina

   (c) Fallopian tube

   (d) Cervix

 * What is the role of the sperm's acrosome?

   (a) To provide energy for movement

   (b) To propel the sperm through the female reproductive tract

   (c) To release enzymes that help the sperm penetrate the egg

   (d) To contain the male genetic material

 * Implantation, the attachment of the early embryo to the uterine wall, typically occurs after:

   (a) Fertilization

   (b) Ovulation

   (c) Menstruation

   (d) Birth

 * Which of the following is a function of the testes?

   (a) Production of urine

   (b) Production of sperm cells

   (c) Storage of egg cells

   (d) Site of fertilization

 * Which structure connects the fetus to the placenta?

   (a) Fallopian tube

   (b) Uterus

   (c) Umbilical cord

   (d) Vagina

 * The lining of the uterus that thickens in preparation for pregnancy is called the:

   (a) Myometrium

   (b) Endometrium

   (c) Perimetrium

   (d) Cervix

 * What happens to the unfertilized egg and the thickened uterine lining if pregnancy does not occur?

   (a) They are absorbed by the body.

   (b) They are expelled from the body during menstruation.

   (c) They move to the ovaries for storage.

   (d) They develop into a non-viable embryo.

 * Which of the following provides genetic variation in offspring?

   (a) Mitosis

   (b) Asexual reproduction

   (c) Sexual reproduction

   (d) Cloning

 * The cervix is the:

   (a) Lower, narrow end of the uterus that opens into the vagina.

   (b) Site where fertilization occurs.

   (c) Outer layer of the ovary.

   (d) Tube that carries sperm out of the male body.

 * Which hormone is primarily responsible for the development of secondary sexual characteristics in females?

   (a) Testosterone

   (b) Insulin

   (c) Estrogen

   (d) Progesterone

 * What is the period of development inside the uterus called?

   (a) Puberty

   (b) Menstruation

   (c) Gestation

   (d) Ovulation

 * Which of the following is a function of the ovaries?

   (a) Production of sperm

   (b) Implantation of the embryo

   (c) Production of estrogen and progesterone

   (d) Storage of fertilized eggs

 * What is the pathway that sperm typically follow out of the male body?

   (a) Testes \rightarrow urethra \rightarrow epididymis \rightarrow vas deferens

   (b) Testes \rightarrow epididymis \rightarrow vas deferens \rightarrow urethra

   (c) Testes \rightarrow vas deferens \rightarrow epididymis \rightarrow urethra

   (d) Epididymis \rightarrow testes \rightarrow vas deferens \rightarrow urethra

 * Which of the following is NOT directly involved in fertilization?

   (a) Sperm cell

   (b) Egg cell

   (c) Uterus

   (d) Fallopian tube

 * How many chromosomes are typically found in a human sperm or egg cell?

   (a) 46

   (b) 23

   (c) 92

   (d) Variable

 * What is the significance of the chromosome number in gametes being half that of somatic cells?

   (a) It ensures genetic uniformity in offspring.

   (b) It allows for more rapid cell division.

   (c) It maintains the correct chromosome number after fertilization.

   (d) It prevents the development of genetic mutations.

 * Which of the following best explains why only one sperm typically fertilizes an egg?

   (a) The egg releases a chemical that attracts only the fastest sperm.

   (b) The sperm nucleus fuses with the egg nucleus before other sperm can penetrate.

   (c) Changes in the egg's plasma membrane and the formation of a fertilization membrane prevent polyspermy.

   (d) The female reproductive tract actively blocks additional sperm after the first one reaches the egg.

 * A mutation in the genes responsible for producing follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) could directly affect which of the following processes in a female?

   (a) Uterine lining development during the menstrual cycle.

   (b) Milk production after childbirth.

   (c) Maturation of the egg within the ovary.

   (d) Contractions of the uterus during labor.

 * The corpus luteum, a temporary endocrine gland, forms in the ovary after ovulation. What is its primary role in early pregnancy?

   (a) To stimulate the development of the placenta.

   (b) To produce estrogen that thickens the uterine lining.

   (c) To secrete progesterone that maintains the uterine lining.

   (d) To trigger the release of the next egg.

 * Which of the following events must occur for successful fertilization in humans?

   (a) Implantation of the blastocyst in the uterine wall.

   (b) Fusion of the sperm and egg nuclei, resulting in a diploid zygote.

   (c) Development of the secondary sexual characteristics in the offspring.

   (d) Completion of the first meiotic division in the sperm.

 * A couple is having difficulty conceiving. Medical tests reveal that the male has a low sperm count and many of his sperm are non-motile. Which of the following assisted reproductive technologies would be the MOST likely to help this couple achieve pregnancy?

   (a) Hormone therapy for the female to increase egg production.

   (b) In vitro fertilization (IVF) with intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI).

   (c) Artificial insemination with the male's sperm.

   (d) Adoption.

 * During embryonic development, the process of gastrulation leads to the formation of three primary germ layers. Which of the following adult structures is NOT derived from the mesoderm?

   (a) Muscle tissue

   (b) Blood vessels

   (c) Nervous system

   (d) Bones

 * Which of the following statements accurately describes the hormonal changes during the menstrual cycle?

   (a) Estrogen levels peak after ovulation, stimulating the formation of the corpus luteum.

   (b) Progesterone levels are highest during menstruation, causing the uterine lining to shed.

   (c) A surge in luteinizing hormone (LH) triggers ovulation.

   (d) FSH levels remain constant throughout the entire cycle.

 * The placenta acts as an interface between the mother and the developing fetus. Which of the following substances would NOT typically cross the placenta from the mother to the fetus?

   (a) Oxygen

   (b) Nutrients

   (c) Carbon dioxide

   (d) Antibodies

 * If a woman has a consistently short luteal phase (the time between ovulation and menstruation), this could make it difficult to conceive because:

   (a) Ovulation may not occur regularly.

   (b) The uterine lining may not have enough time to fully develop for implantation.

   (c) Sperm may not be able to reach the egg in time.

   (d) The egg may not mature properly.

   The primary difference between spermatogenesis and oogenesis in humans is that:

   (a) Spermatogenesis produces one functional gamete, while oogenesis produces four.

   (b) Spermatogenesis occurs in the testes, while oogenesis occurs in the uterus.

   (c) Spermatogenesis is a continuous process after puberty, while oogenesis is cyclical and finite.

   (d) Spermatogenesis involves mitosis only, while oogenesis involves meiosis only.

 * Which of the following is a critical function of the seminal fluid produced by the male accessory glands?

   (a) To stimulate the production of testosterone in the testes.

   (b) To provide a nutrient-rich environment and aid in sperm motility.

   (c) To trigger ovulation in the female reproductive tract.

   (d) To prevent the fertilization of multiple eggs.

 * In fetal circulation, the ductus arteriosus is a temporary blood vessel that connects the pulmonary artery to the aorta. What is the primary reason this vessel closes shortly after birth?

   (a) To allow blood to flow directly from the placenta to the fetus.

   (b) To bypass the non-functional lungs of the fetus.

   (c) To increase blood pressure in the newborn.

   (d) To prevent mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the adult heart.

 * Which of the following scenarios would MOST likely result in fraternal (dizygotic) twins?

   (a) A single fertilized egg splits into two separate embryos.

   (b) Two separate eggs are released from the ovary and fertilized by two different sperm.

   (c) One sperm fertilizes two egg nuclei within the same egg cell.

   (d) A polar body is fertilized at the same time as the egg.

 * Genetic testing can be performed on embryos created through IVF before implantation. This procedure, known as preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD), is primarily used to:

   (a) Select the sex of the offspring.

   (b) Screen for specific genetic disorders.

   (c) Enhance the intelligence of the offspring.

   (d) Increase the chances of multiple pregnancies.

 * Which of the following is a characteristic feature of the first trimester of pregnancy?

   (a) Rapid fetal growth and organ maturation.

   (b) Significant weight gain in the mother.

   (c) Development of the placenta and major organs in the embryo.

   (d) The fetus reaching a stage of viability outside the womb.

 * The process of labor and childbirth is regulated by a complex interplay of hormones. Which hormone plays a key role in stimulating uterine contractions?

   (a) Progesterone

   (b) Estrogen

   (c) Oxytocin

   (d) Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

 * A scientist is studying the effects of a new endocrine disruptor on reproductive development in mice. Exposure to this chemical during pregnancy leads to abnormal development of the Wolffian ducts in male offspring. Which adult structures would MOST likely be affected by this disruption?

   (a) Ovaries and fallopian tubes

   (b) Uterus and vagina

   (c) Epididymis, vas deferens, and seminal vesicles

   (d) Prostate gland and testes

 * Which of the following statements best describes the role of the zona pellucida surrounding the egg?

   (a) It provides nutrients to the developing embryo before implantation.

   (b) It prevents the egg from implanting in the fallopian tube.

   (c) It binds to sperm and initiates the acrosomal reaction.

   (d) It facilitates the exchange of gases between the mother and the egg.

 * The formation of the neural tube during embryonic development is a crucial step in the development of the nervous system. Which germ layer gives rise to the neural tube?

   (a) Ectoderm

   (b) Mesoderm

   (c) Endoderm

   (d) Blastocoel

 * Which of the following is a potential consequence of the failure of the testes to descend into the scrotum (cryptorchidism)?

   (a) Increased testosterone production.

   (b) Inability to produce viable sperm.

   (c) Premature development of secondary sexual characteristics.

   (d) Increased risk of prostate cancer.

 * The process of capacitation in sperm is essential for fertilization. Where does capacitation typically occur?

   (a) In the testes

   (b) In the epididymis

   (c) In the female reproductive tract

   (d) In the seminal vesicles

 * Which of the following represents a difference in the outcomes of mitosis and meiosis?

   (a) Mitosis results in genetically identical daughter cells, while meiosis results in genetically diverse daughter cells.

   (b) Mitosis occurs in somatic cells, while meiosis occurs only in gametes.

   (c) Mitosis involves one nuclear division, while meiosis involves two.

   (d) All of the above.

 * A researcher is studying the role of calcium ions in fertilization. Blocking calcium influx into the egg cell after sperm-egg fusion would most likely prevent:

   (a) Sperm binding to the zona pellucida.

   (b) The acrosomal reaction in the sperm.

   (c) The cortical reaction and the formation of the fertilization membrane.

   (d) The fusion of the sperm and egg nuclei.

 * Which of the following is a key adaptation of the human female reproductive system that facilitates internal fertilization and development?

   (a) External production of eggs.

   (b) The presence of a large number of flagellated sperm.

   (c) The uterus providing a protected environment for the developing embryo.

   (d) The release of eggs into an aquatic environment.

 * If a developing embryo fails to undergo proper cleavage, what would be the most likely consequence?

   (a) The formation of identical twins.

   (b) The failure to form a multicellular blastocyst.

   (c) The development of a fetus with extra chromosomes.

   (d) Premature implantation in the fallopian tube.

 * Which of the following hormones is primarily responsible for maintaining pregnancy after the first trimester?

   (a) Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) produced by the embryo.

   (b) Progesterone produced by the placenta.

   (c) Estrogen produced by the ovaries.

   (d) Luteinizing hormone (LH) produced by the pituitary gland.

 * A teratogen is an agent that can disrupt normal embryonic or fetal development. Exposure to a teratogen is MOST likely to cause significant birth defects during which period?

   (a) The first two weeks after fertilization.

   (b) The first trimester, when major organs are forming.

   (c) The second trimester, when organs are maturing.

   (d) The third trimester, when rapid growth occurs.

   Which of the following is a characteristic of the secondary oocyte at the time of fertilization?

   (a) It has completed both meiotic divisions.

   (b) Its nucleus is haploid and has undergone DNA replication.

   (c) It is arrested in the second meiotic metaphase.

   (d) It contains a large amount of cytoplasm and a polar body that has also completed meiosis II.

 * The role of the allantois in the early human embryo is primarily related to:

   (a) Providing nutrients to the developing embryo.

   (b) Forming the major part of the placenta.

   (c) Waste storage and the development of the umbilical cord blood vessels.

   (d) Protecting the embryo from mechanical shock.

 * Which of the following best describes the process of sperm capacitation?

   (a) The physical movement of sperm towards the egg.

   (b) The release of enzymes from the acrosome to penetrate the egg.

   (c) Changes in the sperm's plasma membrane that allow it to fertilize the egg.

   (d) The fusion of the sperm and egg nuclei.

 * A woman experiences a surge in basal body temperature. This is most likely correlated with:

   (a) The onset of menstruation.

   (b) The peak of estrogen production.

   (c) Ovulation.

   (d) The formation of the corpus luteum.

 * Which of the following is a primary function of the epididymis?

   (a) Production of sperm cells.

   (b) Secretion of seminal fluid.

   (c) Maturation and storage of sperm cells.

   (d) Transport of sperm to the urethra.

 * If fertilization occurs, the resulting zygote begins to undergo rapid cell division without significant growth. This process is known as:

   (a) Gastrulation.

   (b) Cleavage.

   (c) Differentiation.

   (d) Organogenesis.

 * Which of the following structures in the female reproductive system is lined with cilia to help move the egg towards the uterus?

   (a) Ovary

   (b) Uterus

   (c) Vagina

   (d) Fallopian tube

 * What is the primary function of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)?

   (a) To stimulate the ovaries to release an egg.

   (b) To maintain the corpus luteum and progesterone production in early pregnancy.

   (c) To trigger uterine contractions during labor.

   (d) To promote milk production after childbirth.

 * Which of the following is a key difference between the endocrine and exocrine functions of the testes?

   (a) Endocrine functions involve the production of sperm, while exocrine functions involve hormone production.

   (b) Endocrine functions release products into ducts, while exocrine functions release products into the bloodstream.

   (c) Endocrine functions involve the production of testosterone, while exocrine functions involve the production of sperm.

   (d) There is no exocrine function of the testes.

 * The inner cell mass of the blastocyst will eventually develop into the:

   (a) Placenta.

   (b) Amniotic sac.

   (c) Embryo proper.

   (d) Chorionic villi.

 * Which of the following is a characteristic of the process of meiosis that contributes to genetic variation in offspring?

   (a) DNA replication during interphase.

   (b) Separation of sister chromatids during anaphase II.

   (c) Crossing over during prophase I.

   (d) Cytokinesis at the end of telophase II.

 * A couple is using the rhythm method of birth control, which relies on tracking the woman's menstrual cycle to predict ovulation. This method is LEAST effective because:

   (a) Sperm can survive for several days in the female reproductive tract.

   (b) Ovulation always occurs exactly in the middle of the menstrual cycle.

   (c) The egg can only be fertilized for a very short period.

   (d) It prevents the release of hormones necessary for fertilization.

 * Which of the following is a primary function of the prostate gland?

   (a) To produce sperm cells.

   (b) To store mature sperm.

   (c) To secrete alkaline fluid that contributes to semen volume and sperm motility.

   (d) To produce testosterone.

 * The yolk sac in the early human embryo, although not a primary source of nutrition, plays an important role in:

   (a) The formation of the placenta.

   (b) Early blood cell formation.

   (c) Providing cushioning and protection.

   (d) Waste removal.

 * Which of the following statements accurately describes the role of the placenta?

   (a) It directly nourishes the fetus with the mother's blood.

   (b) It prevents the exchange of any substances between the mother and the fetus.

   (c) It allows for the exchange of gases, nutrients, and wastes between the mother and the fetus without mixing their blood.

   (d) It produces sperm cells that contribute to the fetus's genetic makeup.

 * If a woman has blocked fallopian tubes, which of the following would be directly prevented?

   (a) Ovulation

   (b) Implantation

   (c) Fertilization

   (d) Menstruation

 * Which of the following is a characteristic of the first polar body formed during oogenesis?

   (a) It develops into a mature ovum.

   (b) It contains most of the cytoplasm from the primary oocyte.

   (c) It is a small, non-functional cell that eventually degenerates.

   (d) It fuses with a sperm during fertilization.

 * The acrosomal reaction is triggered by contact with the:

   (a) Uterine wall.

   (b) Zona pellucida.

   (c) Corona radiata.

   (d) Amniotic fluid.

 * Which of the following hormones is responsible for the development and maintenance of the uterine lining during pregnancy?

   (a) Estrogen

   (b) Progesterone

   (c) Luteinizing hormone (LH)

   (d) Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

 * A developing fetus receives oxygenated blood from the placenta via the:

   (a) Umbilical arteries.

   (b) Umbilical vein.

   (c) Ductus venosus.

   (d) Foramen ovale.

 * Which of the following is a potential risk associated with multiple pregnancies (e.g., twins, triplets)?

   (a) Increased birth weight of individual babies.

   (b) Decreased risk of premature birth.

   (c) Higher likelihood of maternal complications.

   (d) Faster fetal development.

 * The primary function of the corona radiata surrounding the egg is to:

   (a) Prevent polyspermy.

   (b) Provide nutrients to the egg.

   (c) Protect the egg and attract sperm.

   (d) Initiate the first meiotic division.

 * Which of the following is a key difference between positive and negative feedback mechanisms in the endocrine system, as exemplified by the menstrual cycle and childbirth?

   (a) Positive feedback maintains homeostasis, while negative feedback amplifies a response.

   (b) Negative feedback maintains homeostasis, while positive feedback amplifies a response.

   (c) Both positive and negative feedback mechanisms always involve hormones.

   (d) Positive feedback is more common in regulating long-term cyclical processes like the menstrual cycle.

 * In the context of reproductive technology, intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) directly assists in which stage of fertilization?

   (a) Sperm motility through the female reproductive tract.

   (b) Binding of sperm to the zona pellucida.

   (c) Penetration of the sperm plasma membrane into the egg cytoplasm.

   (d) Fusion of the sperm and egg nuclei.

 * Which of the following embryonic membranes contributes most significantly to the formation of the placenta?

   (a) Amnion

   (b) Yolk sac

   (c) Chorion

   (d) Allantois

 * A medication that blocks the action of progesterone would most likely have which of the following effects on a pregnant woman?

   (a) Stimulation of uterine contractions.

   (b) Increased milk production.

   (c) Prevention of ovulation.

   (d) Shedding of the uterine lining.

 * Which of the following is a crucial event that occurs during the first meiotic division of oogenesis?

   (a) Separation of sister chromatids.

   (b) Replication of DNA.

   (c) Crossing over between homologous chromosomes.

   (d) Fusion of the egg and sperm nuclei.

 * The pH of the vagina is typically acidic. What is the biological significance of this acidity in the context of fertilization?

   (a) It helps to activate sperm motility.

   (b) It prevents the fertilization of multiple eggs.

   (c) It protects the female reproductive tract from pathogens, but can be somewhat hostile to sperm.

   (d) It promotes the implantation of the blastocyst.

 * Which of the following structures is derived from the ectoderm during embryonic development?

   (a) Muscle tissue

   (b) Lining of the digestive tract

   (c) Epidermis of the skin and nervous system

   (d) Connective tissue and blood vessels

 * The foramen ovale is a temporary opening in the fetal heart that allows blood to bypass the:

   (a) Liver.

   (b) Lungs.

   (c) Kidneys.

   (d) Brain.

 * Which of the following is a potential consequence of endometriosis, a condition where uterine-like tissue grows outside the uterus?

   (a) Increased risk of multiple pregnancies.

   (b) Difficulty conceiving due to blocked fallopian tubes or other factors.

   (c) Premature onset of menopause.

   (d) Increased production of estrogen.

 * The process of apoptosis (programmed cell death) is crucial during embryonic development for:

   (a) Providing nutrients to rapidly dividing cells.

   (b) Eliminating unnecessary structures, such as webbing between fingers and toes.

   (c) Ensuring that all cells divide at the same rate.

   (d) Preventing genetic mutations from being passed on to daughter cells.

Short Answer Questions (30 Questions):

 * Explain the complex interplay of hormones that regulate the menstrual cycle, including the roles of the pituitary gland and the ovaries.

 * Describe the series of events that occur at the cellular and molecular level when a sperm successfully fertilizes an egg.

 * Discuss the adaptations of the human female reproductive system that facilitate internal fertilization, implantation, and the development of the fetus.

 * Explain the significance of the placenta as an interface between the maternal and fetal circulatory systems. What substances are exchanged, and why is the mixing of maternal and fetal blood generally avoided?

 * Compare and contrast the processes of spermatogenesis and oogenesis, highlighting key differences in timing, number of functional gametes produced, and the role of polar bodies.

 * Describe the stages of early embryonic development, from zygote to blastocyst, and the key events that occur during each stage.

 * Explain the role of the three primary germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm) in the development of the major tissues and organs of the human body. Provide one example of a structure derived from each layer.

 * Discuss the hormonal regulation of labor and childbirth, including the roles of oxytocin and prostaglandins.

 * Explain the mechanisms that prevent polyspermy in human fertilization and the importance of this prevention.

 * Describe the structure and function of the umbilical cord, including the types of blood vessels it contains and the direction of blood flow.

 * Discuss the potential impact of endocrine disruptors on human reproductive health and development, providing examples of how these chemicals might interfere with normal hormonal signaling.

 * Explain the process of implantation and the critical role of the trophoblast in establishing a connection with the maternal tissues.

 * Describe the adaptations of sperm that enable them to reach and fertilize the egg, including motility, chemotaxis, and the acrosomal reaction.

 * Discuss the significance of genetic variation in offspring produced through sexual reproduction, linking it to the process of meiosis.

 * Explain the function of the amniotic fluid and the amniotic sac in protecting and supporting the developing fetus.

 * Describe the changes that occur in the maternal body during pregnancy to support the developing fetus, including physiological and anatomical adaptations.

 * Discuss the ethical considerations surrounding assisted reproductive technologies such as in vitro fertilization (IVF) and preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD).

 * Explain the role of the corpus luteum in maintaining early pregnancy and what happens to it if fertilization does not occur.

 * Describe the key differences between fraternal and identical twins, including their genetic origins.

 * Discuss the potential complications that can arise during pregnancy and their impact on both the mother and the developing fetus.

 * Explain the process of fetal circulation and the adaptations (e.g., ductus arteriosus, foramen ovale) that allow the fetus to bypass the non-functional lungs.

 * Describe the stages of labor and the key events that occur in each stage.

 * Discuss the factors that can affect sperm viability and motility, and their implications for male fertility.

 * Explain the role of the placenta in providing immunological protection to the developing fetus.

 * Describe the hormonal changes that occur during puberty in both males and females and their effects on the development of secondary sexual characteristics.

 * Discuss the potential benefits and risks associated with different methods of contraception, relating their mechanisms of action to the process of fertilization or implantation.

 * Explain the process of organogenesis and the critical period during embryonic development when the fetus is most vulnerable to teratogens.

 * Describe the structure and function of the mammary glands and the hormonal control of lactation.

 * Discuss the long-term health implications for individuals conceived through assisted reproductive technologies.

 * Explain the role of the cervix during pregnancy and childbirth, including the changes it undergoes in preparation for delivery.