Untitled Flashcards Set

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✏ Memory - is the process involved in retaining, retrieving and using info about stimuli, images, events, ideas and skills after the original info is no longer present.


✿ brief intro to types of memory

- sensory/ iconic memory

➯ an initial stage that holds all incoming info for seconds or fractions of a second.

➯ Dependent on maintenance of neural activation n

➯ either has unlimited or very large capacity

- short-term/working memory

➯ (STM) holds 5 to 7 items for about 15 to 20 seconds.

➯

- long-term memory

➯ (LTM) can hold a large amount of info for years or even decades


↳ flow diagram for Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1986) modal mode of memory.

➯ the types of memory are called the structural features of the model

- control processes

➯ proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin

➯ dynamic processes associated with structural features that can be controlled by a person and differ per task

- examples:

Rehearsal:

➯ operates on STM

➯ repeating a particular stimulus over and over… e.g repeating telephone number over and over in head


Encoding

➯ operates on LTM

➯ the process of storing info into long term memory

Retrieval

➯ operates on LTM

the process of remembering stored info

### ✿ sensory/ iconic memory

↳ the retention, for brief periods of time, of the effects of sensory stimulation.

- ↳ persistence of vision

continued perception of a visual stimulus even after it’s not longer present


this persistence of vision is why animation and stop-motion work so well! ↳


- Sterling’s Experiment

↳ sterling determined how much info people can take in from a briefly presented stimuli

↳ the experiment utilized a:

- whole report method

person saw all 12 letters at once for 50 ms and reported as many as they could remember

- partial report method

person saw all 12 letter, but immediately after they turned off a tone indicated which row was to be reported

- delayed report method

same as b, but with short delay between turning off letters and presentation of the tone


results:

➯ the decrease in performance is due to the rapid decay of iconic memory

conclusion:

➯ sensory memory registers all info that hits our visual receptors, but that info decays within less than a second

➯ sensory memory for visual stimuli - iconic memory corresponds to sensory memory stage in modal model

➯ echoic memory: persistence of sound

↳ lasts for a few secs after the presentation of the original stimulus

↳ example: hearing someone saying something and not understanding at first. Saying “what” but before they repeat what they said you hear it in your mind.

### ✿ short-term memory: storage

↳ system involved in storing small amounts of information for a brief period of time

- what is the duration of short-term memory?

↳ 15 to 20 seconds

↳ demonstrated by Brown and Peterson, who used the method of recall to determine the duration of STM

- how many items can be held in short-term memory?

↳ digit span: number of digits a person can remember.

↳ average capacity for STM is about 5 -9 items

↳ this was discovered by George miller who summarized this in the “The Magical number Seven, Plus or Minus Two,”

↳ change detection - based on results of Luck and Vogel, procedure that measured capacity of ST~~M~~


results:

↳ performance almost perfect when there were 1-3 squares, but decreased when there were 4 or more squares

- Chunking Miller (1956)

↳ small units (like words) can be combined into a larger meaningful unites

example: phrases, sentences, paragraphs or stories

example: K Anders Ericsson demonstrated chunking by showing how student used runing to chunk - 3492 —→ 3 mins. and 49.2 seconds

↳ a chunk - collection of things strongly associated with one another but weakly with elements in other chunks

↳ we can recall a sequence of 5-8 unrelated words but arranging them in a meaningful way increases memory span to 20 words or more

- how much info can be held in short-term memory?

↳ research has suggested that rather than describing memory capacity in terms of # of items, it should be described as amounts of info.

↳ consider a pc flash drive, the # of pics that can be stored depend on the size of the drive and the size of the picture. some take up more space and memory


↳ experiment adapted change detection but focused on exploring complex objects

↳ result: the greater the amount of info in an image, the fewer items that can be held in STM

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<img src="/icons/brain_pink.svg" alt="/icons/brain_pink.svg" width="40px" /> Working Memory —> introduced in a paper by Baddely and Hitch (1974)

↳ limited capacity system for temporary storage, and manipulation of info for complex tasks such as comprehension, learning and reasoning.

✿ short-term memory: focused on storing info for a brief period

✿ long-term memory: focused on manipulating info that occurs during a complex cognition.

↳ e.g: remembering numbers while reading a paragraph

Baddeley’s Memory Model


- phonological loop

↳ holds verbal and auditory info

consists of 2 components

↳ phonological store: has limited capacity and holds info for only a few seconds

↳ articulatory rehearsal process: responsible for rehearsal that can keep items in phonological store from decaying ****

- visuospatial sketch pad

↳ holds visual and spatial information

—→ you use it when doing tasks like solving a puzzle or finding ur way around campus

- central executive

↳ pulls info from long-term memory and coordinates activity

↳ focuses on specific parts of a task and deciding how to divide attention between diff tasks

↳ “traffic cop” of the system

✿ Lecture Notes

- fluid intelligence correlates with working memory

- brain regions in which intelligence predicted lure activity

- higher RPM score =

- higher working memory —> more intelligence

- correlation doesn’t equal causation

- improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory - experiment

- adaptive dual n-back task

- 2 n back tasks at the same time (look into what n-back tasks are again

- start with a 1 back task and once the performance became good enough they moved up to 1, 2 and so on

- results: after 19 days of training they were able to do a dual 5 back task

- does this improve fluid intelligence? yes

- experiment utilized a control group who didn’t do the tasks and training group’s (that did the n-back tasks) performance increased significantly higher ****

- in contrast to many studies it’s possible to improve fluid intelligence without practicing the testing tasks themselves. —> training improved

- problems with jaeggi et al.

- no active control group —> (training grp might be differently motivated

- people were told they were “training” their brain (tacit knowledge)

- is it motivation that made them perform better?

- paper: no evidence of intelligence improvement after working memory - randomized placebo controlled study

- active group: - adaptive dual n back(working memory training!) —>

- control group: adaptive visual search (no working memory training!)

- both took a post fluid intelligence test

- neither control or training group improved performance

- Brain training

- improves cognitive proceses you use (near transfer

- it does not improve processes you don’t exercise (far transfer)

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- Kent Cochrane and Engel Tofen

↳ crucial in how LTM and hippocampus interact

↳ cochrane experienced a traumatic brain injury after riding a motorbike, once recovered he experienced really bad seizures

↳ to help doctors removed hippocampus and area’s surrounding it

↳ during a test cochrane does great on short-term memory test

↳ 1st time Engel just asks cochrane to define a list of words as a test then he later asks cochrane if he remember’s the words as a 2nd test.

↳ very specific deficit, he remembers semantic info, remembers where he lives and grows up but he cannot make new long term memories he only can store old info into LTM

✿ memory can be divided into two distinct versions

- long-term memory

- short-term memory

- serial position curve

↳ lists of 20 words from 4000 most common english words

↳ participants were read 1 word per 2.5 seconds

↳ 90 seconds to recall in any order

↳ results: primacy and recency effect

- primacy effect

↳ things that happened earlier are remembered better ****

↳ numbers of rehearsals impact memory

- recency effect

↳ things that are recent are remembered better yet those in the middle are quickly forgotten

but how does it work since it’s not based on rehearsal?

↳ to test this, we tax people’s phonological loop

↳ same serial position task, but sometimes a “filler task” after initial presentation

↳ filler task: count backwards for 10/30 seconds

↳ results: filler task destroys recency effect but doesn’t impair the primacy effect.

↳ it’s simply just short term memory, while primacy effect reflects early stages of long term memory

✿ is all ltm dependent on the medial temporal lobe and hippocampus?

↳ important distinction: explicit vs implicit memory

- explicit memory (concious)

↳ aware that you are actively retrieving and recalling information/ memories e.g: answering a quiz question

- implicit memory (unconcious)

↳ learned procedural action that you don’t have conscious awareness of e.g: playing an instrument or riding a bike

procedueral memory -

stores info on how to perform certain procedures

learned through repetition

“knowing how”

- Henry Molaison (HM)

↳ got seizures when he was 10 and at 27 the dr’s removed parts of the brain causing it

↳ hippocampus completely removed

↳**Brenda Miller** was the psychologist who made HM famous, wrote a bunch of papers in 1957

↳ just before coming into examination room he had been talking to a dr and had no recollection of speaking to him

↳ Wechler Memory Scale (1945)

↳ easy word associations and hard pairs

↳ e.g crush and dark VS baby and cries

↳ HM remembered 0 of hard pairs and some of the easy pairs, but some could be guessed for easy pairs

↳ HM remembered things from a long time ago, but has severe anterograde amnesia —> after the surgery he doesn’t remember anything ltm but remembers things before the surgery from ltm such as childhood

no hippocampus? no new long-term memories

what about skill based long term memory/ skill work?

↳ HM was asked to trace an outline of a star, in mirror reverse

results: day 1 —> he improves, day 2 —> starts off where he left the 2nd day better and better

his motor skills are improving!! implicit memory

✿-**long-term memory without conscious awareness**

lexicial descion task

↳ tell me whats an actual word and a nonsensical word

↳ participants improved with practice

visual skill earning

practice induces switch from visual analysis to retrieval

retrieval: repeated answers become faster

requires consistent mapping between items and responses and over time becomes an accurate process

automaticity

1. practice 2. Constance

2. 38 by 36 - 1368 can be retrieved

3.

visual skill learning

↳ classic motor skills task:

↳ ****task: 1 box will turn red, tap corresponding finger

↳ serial reaction time in amnesia?

amnesiacs can implicitly learn sequences

weather prediction task


↳ assesses how people learn probabilistic associations between stimuli and outcomes

↳ asked if it will rain or if it will shower after looking at cards

↳ learnable structure/ patterns align with cues

procedural memory

↳ hippocampus is not required to learn procedures

↳ implicit memory is imprinted slowly and unconscously in the neocortex through excessive repitition

BUT . . . . . . . .

statistical learning experiments

↳ participant shown stimuli for a sequence of trails paired over and over again

↳ Saffran studied statistical learning in babies

familiarity test

↳ participants are shown one old (learned) pair and one new pair

↳ goal: identify and say which pair is the old pair

↳ worked with Lonnie, gifted person, got a huge infection in her brain, drastically effected hippocampus

↳ puzzle art allows her to extend her short term memory

her behavior shows that she’s learned sequences, but hasn’t learned controls well (procedural)

perhaps: procedural learning utilizes hippocampus and learns higher-order

- explicit memory

→ stores info about experiences and facts

→ it’s knowing “what”

→ possible to learn in one experience, do

→ also known as declarative memory

- episodic memory

→ memory for specific experiences, essentially reliving or mentally time traveling to that experience

→ specific moments

→ Mental Time Travel” - coined by Engel Tolman first person perspective of lived events → reconstructing and re engaging with subjective experiences you’ve had

Engel Tolman discovered that KC didn’t have a good episodic memory

semantic, but not episodic, memory?

→ HM was asked about facts about public events,

→ asked personal semantic memory “what was the name of your highschool?

→ then asked about autobiographical memory

results: he showed episodic memory but only for early events in his childhood

henry molaison had no episodic memories whatsoever, but retained semantic memory from before the amnesia

- semantic

→ memory for facts (jeopardy trivia type things)

→ ideas

→ concepts

- implicit memory

- procedural

↳ implicit procedural things

↳crucial for doing complex tasks without any concsiouss awareness

↳ e.g playing guitar, singing, riding a bike,

- priming

presentation of one stimulus, changes response to a subsequent stimulus without conscious guidance

→ semantic structure that activates a concept through priming

ways people study priming in the lab

procedure: sparse lines making up drawings shown in sets from 1-6 (less identifiable - more)

show all images in 1 set, count errors

1. if no errors, stop

2. if errors, move to next set and repear

question: how many sets can we repeat and you with until you can guess image?

priming: hour later surprise retest with the same image → makes it easier for you to figure out lines

priming doesn’t seem to require the hippocampus

→ how pleasant are these words? list

- conditioning

- Pavlov’s Dog

unconditioned stimulus → food = drool

neutral stimulus → bell = no drooling

conditioning → food + bell = drool

conditioned stimulus → bell = drool

- conditioning in amnesics

→ participants: 7 amnesics 7 matched controls

→ conditioned stimulus: tone

→ results: conditioned response to tones without explcit awarness

→ no diference between controls and amnesics

summary: implicit memory is a form of long term memory that doesn’t require concious awareness

→ expressed through performance/ demonstrating “knowing how”

→ doesn’t use hippocampus

- hippocampus and MTL

1. encode declaritive memories

2. play role in retrieving memories;

1. episodic old and new,

2. semantic: primarily new

- endel tulving + ruth tulving

- retrograde amnesia

→ inability to recall events from the past

e.g: person with retrograde cannot remember anything that happened before amnesia

- anterograde amnesia

→ inability to form new memories, but still remember things before the onset of amnesia

e.g: forgetting conversations shortly after they happen, or forgetting names and faces

- patient LP

→ italian woman, brain infection encephalitis at 44

→ damage to MTL (medial temporal lobe)

→ NO semantic memory

→ yet lots of detailed episodic memories

task: get tools and ingredients to make spaghetti and make it

result: poor performance in recalling ingredients


- blurring the lines between semantic and episodic memory

→ distinction is about subjective experience, not content

e.g: knowing there was a cake at your first birthday party is semantic

→ distinction is about the nature of the representation and not the thing being represented

- how do they interact?

→ remember / know paradigm in older adults

→ historical events that happened in the media

→ asked to rank if they remember (episodic; recollect a particular image), know (semantic; if it was familiar to them but no recollection of personal experience) or don’t know

→ result: sharper reduction in remember: “semanticization” of remote memories

- what is the function of declarative memory?

→ storing for future events and usage

→ remembering the past + imagining the future

Addis et al. mirroring study demonstrated that these two things share a lot of neural structure

trial 1: recall event from the past, last week that involved a star

trial 2: invision a future event, next five years involving dress

variables: past/future, week/years, cue

result: brain areas more active for past events and future events, many areas overlap!! default mode network + increase activity during rest - decrease task performance

mind wandering is future planning?

→ fits with strategic planning hypothesis

→ using prior experiences to anticipate future events

all this is suggested as episodic buffer

point of memory is to help us think about what happens next → episodic memory just isn’t as important

- neuroscientific models of memory

→ standard model of memory; initial experience different parts encode what happens, auditory, sensory and visual during an event

→ all these areas are linked together by a clump of cells in the hippocampus that encode the memory by connecting and activating different aspects of memory (visual, auditory etc…)

→ doesn’t contain subjective experience just works as. pointer

→ consolidation: overtime connections between individual elements of memory become more strongly connected together after firing so. much.

→ leads to memory independently do this overtime

→ hippocampus becomes less and less involved

standard model of memory

- multiple trace model

→ connection between individual elements of memory becomes stronger but hippocampus stays attached to these forever and doesn’t go away

→ every time a memory is recalled a new trace is made, thus more traces = easier to recall

→ episodic memories are more unique, less rehearsed and thus fewer traces <aside>

<img src="/icons/brain_pink.svg" alt="/icons/brain_pink.svg" width="40px" /> long term memory

- ✿ encoding

↳ process of acquiring information and transferring it to LTM

study results: no effect of repetition (number of intervening words) on encoding success

how can we better encode information?

- does intention help to remember? study

task: see a list of words

participants made 2 judgments

1. whether it contains an E or G

2. 2. how pleasant it is

memory test: recall the words that you saw

intentional learning group expected a memory test, incidental did not

data: regardless of if you expected the test or not, you respond the same to memory test

just the intention of memory doesn’t help you encode in a stronger way.

BUT… pleasantness test had exponentially higher results

- depth of processing - Craik 1973

“the meaningfulness extracted from the stimulus rather than… the number of analyses”

Levels of Processing

idea: the deeper the stimulus is processed the better it is encoded

structural task: is the word in capital letters? ↳ e.g TABLE vs table

phonemic task: does it rhyme with weight? ↳ e.g crate vs market

category: is it a type of fish?

↳ shark vs heaven

structural → phonemic → category

shallow ————————————> deep

result: better memory when depth of processing increases

Other ways to establish deep Processing

- Survival

↳ memory shaped by evolution to increase the ability to survive, basic survival challenges such as finidng food and evading predators

- self reference

list of adjectives, one of two judgements

1. does this word describe you?

2. is this word commonly used

memory is better if you are asked to relate a word to yourself.

participants

self-reference effect

↳ you better remember the birthdays of people whose birthdays are closer to your own birthdays

- Understanding

↳ understanding increases meaning during encoding

task: Bransford and Johnson

1. listen to a paragraph

2. try to remember it

3. recall as many ideas as possible

surprise memory task!!!!

context about an obscure paragraph lead to better encoding after having the textual context of what it was about

however, no difference between no context, and context after the text. best encoding happens having the context before reading the text

- Generation

idea: if you generate information yourself using semantics, better encoding

task: remember word pairs (some incomplete

Key- Lock

Bear - Fur

Ear - Song

the ones we had to guess ourselves were easier to remember, because we were generating the content and ideas ourselves.

increased elaboration leads to better encoding

richer network of semantic connections during encoding

✿ summary

↳ Increased elaboration leads to better encoding

↳ Richer network of semantic connections during encoding

↳ More ways to retrieve information during recall

- incorporating testing during encoding

Roediger & Karpicke

↳ Participants studied some prose from Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOFEL)

two conditions

1. study, then study again

2. study, then test

final test after 5 minutes, 2 days or 1week

results: if testing after 5 minutes **group** a did better, but after a delay (2 days, or 1 week) **group** b did better

more retention when studying was followed by a test!

conclusions: encoding or “how should u study?”

ineffective: repetition and mere intention

effective: (deep meaning-based) processing

- ✿ storage/ consolidation

↳ the strengthening of information in long-term memory after the original learning experience

new memories are fragile and can be disrupted

task: study list 1 and then list 2

immediate study v.s delay


consolidation → the process that transforms new memories from a fragile state in which they can be disrupted, to a more permanent state

sleep is very good for consolidating memories

→ study - rats walk in a maze, firing of cells reveal that they encode rat’s location

→ while the mouse is sleeping, it starts to replay the path it took in the maze, simulating the experience.

how does this relate to learning?

→ hippocampal replay assists learning study

task: find cheese in a maze

→ disrupt hippocampal replay during sleep

result: consolidation really seems to happen during sleep

does this happen in humans?

approach: visual skill learning

Was there a T or L in the Middle?

sleep ***needed*** to improve on a task

27 participants played 7 hours of tetris of 3 days

Each night, they sept in the lab

They were woken in the first hour, and asked about their dreams

report:

novices reach the level of experts in skill

amnesics don’t improve

yet at night amnesiacs remember tetris game pieces in dreams (don’t remember context or where blocks are from)

novices dream about it

experts dre

summary

memory forms 3

- ✿ retrieval

→ the processing of accessing information stored into long- term-memory

- tip-of-the-tongue effect

↳ participants were given 204 probes of famous people

↳ initial rating of familiarity (like the harry styles test)

↳ successive testing over three weeks

↳ tip of tongue associated with associated partial information (first sound, length,..)

→ standard model of memory

- memories distributed networks of associations

- tip of tongue: not enough spread of activity between the nodes

accessibility vs availability (phenomenon)

available = the information is stored in memory

accessible = the information can be retrieved

prediction: presentation of cues should increase recall

task: read the following sentences and remember the underlined words

free recall v.s cued recall → presenting cues surrounding the context in which you try to memorize words, makes them accessible enough to be retrieved

→ individually activated and can reinforce one another

retrieval cues

- not all available info i acessible

- acessiblity depends on having a good cue

- if something is on ttoyt you just need a good cue!

- encoding speci**ficity (**what counts as a cue?)

matching context between encoding and retrieval assists performance

> “we encode info along with it’s context”

>

famous study: participants study lists of word in 2 enviroments

1. group studies list on land

2. group studies list underwater

result: participants that studied on land did better when studying on land,

result: those who studied underwater did significantly better when they were tested underwater → context in which they studied were retrieval cues

replicated at Princeton with VR →

music and encoding

study: participants read a study on pyschoimmunolgoy with headphones on

reading:

quiet condiiton: no sound

noise condition: cafeteria noise

short answer test on article

queit condition: no sound

noise condition: caefeteria sound

result: if studied with noise, test with noise is better performance. if studied with quiet, test with quiet better performance.

mood: participant studied a list of words and recalled them 2 days later

mood manipulated during study and test with happy or sad music

results: study with sad mood → test with sad mood better performance and etc…

other states → intoxication as a state, could it be a retrieval cue?

if you study drunk, better of testing drunk

- relationship between encoding and retrieval

encoding specificity: context isn’t special just another set of associations

transfer appropriate processing

better performance when the type of processing matches during encoding and retreival

↳ explained through associative networks?

what counts as a cue?

types of processing as a retrieval cue? → e.g

Meaning condition

the_________ had a silver engine. TRAIN

the ________ walked down the street. BUILDING

rhyming condition

________ rhymes with legal. EAGLE

________ rhymes with car. POUND

↳ during retrieval/ tests ask

“does this word rhyme with one of the target words?”

RAIN (rhymes with train)

STREET (doesn’t rhyme)

result: in this task more words are retrieved from the rhyming task vs the meaning task

↳ this goes against levels of processing

deeper processing does not *always* ****result in better retrieval!

behavior is not determined by a single factor

- interference (will be on the exam)

↳ retroactive interference: past memories become harder to remember because youve lerned so much information ( what was the name of the first person I met at this party?”

↳ proactive interference: new memory becomes harder to remember because theres so much information youve already learned (what was his name again → most recent person met at a party)

proactive interference in the lab

1. participants studied 10 pairs of adjectives

2. they came back, recalled the old list and studied new ones

3. they repeated this process two more times

4. results: never more than one list tested, but there was still interference

explanation: competition during retrieval

here: same context in each session may create one large network

retroactive interference in the lab

participant studied a list of pairs in two sessions

result: experimental condition (AB-AD) showed much worrse performance

this is because of → retrieval competition

constructive memory

- memories are not a carbon copy of the past

- prone to revision and error

- does retrieval cause changes?

retrieval induced forgetting

→ practiced exemplars have stronger associations than unpracticed exemplars from retrieved categories

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