week one

• Chapter 1 - "Multicultural view" page 5,

Cross-cultural studies confirm that children universally need acceptance and love from caregivers, with perceptions of acceptance and rejection centered around four behavioral dimensions: warmth/affection, hostility/aggression, indifference/neglect, and undifferentiated rejection. Low parental acceptance is linked to psychological maladjustment, including depression and substance abuse in adulthood.

Parental acceptance and rejection vary across and within cultures, especially in new environments. Acceptance can be expressed verbally (praise) or non-verbally (hugs), while rejection can involve harsh criticism or neglect. This has led to the development of parental acceptance–rejection theory (PART), which examines the psychological and environmental factors influencing parental behaviors worldwide.

Research shows that caregiver acceptance is consistently associated with higher self-esteem, independence, and emotional stability, while rejection correlates with poor self-image and relationship difficulties. Studies also indicate that maternal responsiveness fosters better peer relationships, empathy, and moral development, whereas childhood abuse is linked to negative worldviews and relationship struggles. Large cross-cultural studies affirm that patterns of parental acceptance and rejection influence personality traits universally.

• "Closing the gap for Indigenous Australians" page 10-11,

Closing the Gap for Indigenous Australians – Summary

The Council of Australian Governments (COAG) launched the Closing the Gap Statement of Intent in 2008, committing to reducing disparities in health, education, and employment between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples and non-Indigenous Australians by 2030. The initiative set six key targets, including closing the life expectancy gap, reducing child mortality, improving education access and attainment, and enhancing employment outcomes.

Despite annual reports since 2010, a 10-year review in 2018 found minimal progress, with some indicators worsening. The review highlighted structural barriers such as institutional racism, inadequate healthcare, and socioeconomic inequalities. It emphasized the need for systemic reform, advocating for Indigenous-led solutions under the principle of "nothing about us, without us."

In response, the 2020 National Agreement on Closing the Gap shifted towards community-led initiatives, empowering Indigenous groups in decision-making, service delivery, and data control. The 2021 report recognized progress under this new framework, calling it a "game changer" in fostering government accountability and Indigenous leadership in policy reforms. While significant challenges remain, the new approach is seen as a positive step toward meaningful change.

"Why study development" page 11-12

Understanding human development provides five key benefits. First, it sets realistic expectations for children, adolescents, and adults by outlining typical developmental milestones, such as when infants begin talking or when abstract reasoning emerges in schoolchildren. Second, it aids in appropriate responses to behaviour by explaining developmental patterns, such as a preschooler’s desire to marry a parent or an elderly person’s health concerns. Third, it helps distinguish normal variations from significant concerns, guiding decisions on issues like delayed speech or changes in work ambition. Fourth, it fosters self-understanding, helping individuals reflect on personal experiences, such as the impact of early or late puberty or uncertainty about career choices. Finally, it enables advocacy for people of all ages by equipping individuals with the knowledge to support diverse age groups and contribute to a more humane society.

 "Summary" page 31-33

1.1 Definition of Development

Development refers to the changes and continuities in physical, cognitive, and psychosocial aspects of an individual throughout life. Developmental psychologists focus on fundamental changes that shape how individuals understand and interact with the world.

1.2 Importance of Studying Development

Studying development helps professionals (teachers, nurses, social workers, psychologists) understand human behavior, individual differences, and when behavior may indicate concerns. It also provides insight into one's own life experiences.

1.3 Changing Views on Infancy, Childhood, and Adolescence

Historically, childhood and adolescence were not seen as distinct life stages. The Industrial Revolution contributed to recognizing children’s unique needs. Early research included baby biographies and structured observations.

1.4 Key Issues in Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychology emphasizes four major themes:

Continuity within change

Lifelong growth

Changing meanings and vantage points

Diversity among individuals

1.5 Research Methods in Developmental Psychology

Developmental research follows the scientific method and includes:

Cross-sectional studies – compare different age groups at one point in time.

Longitudinal studies – track the same individuals over time.

Naturalistic studies – observe behavior in natural settings.

Experimental studies – manipulate variables to examine cause-and-effect relationships.

1.6 Ethical Considerations in Developmental Psychology

Ethics in developmental research ensure respect, beneficence, non-maleficence, integrity, and justice. Studies involving children require informed consent from guardians. Ethics standards vary across cultures and vulnerable groups.

• Development refers to changes and continuities in a person’s physical, cognitive, and psychosocial aspects, influencing how they interact with the world.

• Importance of Studying Development: It helps professionals (e.g., teachers, nurses, social workers) understand behavior, recognize individual differences, and identify when behaviors are concerning.

• Historical Changes in Views on Development: Infancy, childhood, and adolescence were not always seen as distinct life stages. Modern psychology, influenced by social changes like the Industrial Revolution, recognizes their unique needs.

• Key Issues in Developmental Psychology:

  • Continuity vs. Change

  • Lifelong Growth

  • Changing Meanings & Perspectives

  • Individual Diversity

• Methods in Developmental Psychology:

  • Cross-Sectional: Compares different age groups at one time.

  • Longitudinal: Studies the same group over time.

  • Naturalistic Observation: Observing behavior in real-world settings.

  • Experimental: Manipulating variables to test effects.

• Ethical Considerations: Respect, beneficence, non-maleficence, justice, and informed consent, especially when working with children and vulnerable populations.

• Chapter 2 - "Opening scenario" and "What is a developmental theory" page 38-40,

Leanne, a high school student in New Zealand, is academically successful and under pressure from her parents, particularly her father, to attend university. However, she is uncertain about her future and lacks a clear vision for her career. Upon moving to Auckland for university, she faces several challenges, including adjusting to financial independence, navigating academic struggles, and managing her social life. Initially overwhelmed, Leanne experiences difficulties in balancing her studies and part-time work. Over time, she gains confidence, develops resilience, and strengthens her relationship with her father, demonstrating significant personal growth.

The passage then discusses the significance of developmental theories in explaining such life transitions. Developmental psychology aims to understand how people change over time by examining physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development. Theories within this field address fundamental debates, including the influence of nature (biological maturation) versus nurture (environment and experiences), the continuity or stage-based nature of development, and the extent to which individuals actively shape their own growth or are shaped by external forces.

An effective developmental theory should meet several criteria: it must be logical, meaning its principles should follow a clear and consistent framework; testable, so that its claims can be examined through empirical research; adaptable, allowing for modification in response to new scientific findings; and applicable, meaning it should provide useful insights for real-world situations, such as education and mental health.

Overall, the passage emphasizes that developmental psychology integrates various theoretical perspectives to build a comprehensive understanding of human growth. By studying individuals like Leanne, researchers and practitioners can better understand the challenges people face at different life stages and apply this knowledge to diverse cultural and contextual settings.

"Multicultural view" page 62-64,

Geert Hofstede conducted a worldwide survey of IBM employees between 1967 and 1973, analyzing the values of 116,000 IBM employees in 50 countries. From this data, Hofstede developed his Cultural Dimensions Theory, which has become a foundational framework for understanding cross-cultural communication. His theory identifies the influence of a society's culture on its members' values and behaviors, offering insight into the cultural variations observed globally. Hofstede's work revolutionized cross-cultural psychology and spurred further research into how culture shapes beliefs and behaviors (Adam‐Troian et al., 2021).

Hofstede’s Original Cultural Dimensions (1983)

Power Distance Index (PDI)

This dimension measures the degree to which members of an organization prefer hierarchical structures and autocratic relationships. It defines the extent to which inequalities in power and wealth are accepted in a society. High PDI cultures are more accepting of unequal power distribution, whereas low PDI cultures favor more egalitarian structures.

Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI)

UAI assesses how much uncertainty and ambiguity in work relationships and societal norms are tolerated. Societies with high UAI are uncomfortable with uncertainty and tend to avoid it through strict rules and regulations, while low UAI cultures are more adaptable and comfortable with ambiguity.

Individualism vs. Collectivism (IDV)

This dimension examines the relationship between individuals and their groups. Individualism emphasizes personal goals and independence, often seen in Western societies, whereas collectivism focuses on group goals, extended family relationships, and interdependence, commonly found in Eastern and collectivist societies.

Masculinity vs. Femininity (MAS)

This dimension highlights the difference in gender roles and values. Masculine cultures tend to value assertiveness, competitiveness, and achievement, while feminine cultures emphasize care, quality of life, and cooperation. This cultural divide influences workplace dynamics, goal-setting, and task orientation.

Later Additions to Hofstede’s Dimensions

Long-Term vs. Short-Term Orientation (LTO)

LTO reflects the extent to which societies connect their past to present and future actions. Long-term oriented cultures value pragmatism, persistence, and adaptation to future challenges, while short-term oriented cultures emphasize tradition, respect for past values, and social obligations.

Indulgence vs. Restraint (IND)

This dimension measures the degree to which societies allow or restrict gratification of basic human desires. Indulgent societies encourage the pursuit of happiness and enjoy life freely, whereas restrained societies impose social norms and regulations on such behaviors.

Application to Lifespan Development

Hofstede’s theory offers valuable insights into lifespan development by identifying how societal culture impacts values, beliefs, self-esteem, morality, and social norms. These cultural dimensions help explain how individuals from different cultural backgrounds develop varying personality traits, ideals, and behaviors based on the cultural contexts in which they grow up. Understanding these dimensions can help us see how culture influences human development at every stage of life.

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory and Connection to Hofstede

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory emphasizes that cognitive development is deeply embedded in social interactions and cultural contexts. He proposed that cultural beliefs, skills, and values are transmitted from one generation to another through social interaction, particularly through cooperative dialogues between children, adults, and other knowledgeable figures. This aligns with Hofstede’s dimensions as both theories highlight the importance of cultural context in shaping development.

Vygotsky argued that people growing up in different societies are likely to think, solve problems, and interact in culturally specific ways. Hofstede’s cultural dimensions map closely with Vygotsky’s focus on cultural transmission through social interaction, as both view language as a crucial tool in shaping an individual’s cognitive processes. Vygotsky’s idea that culture influences how individuals think and solve problems complements Hofstede’s belief that societal values shape behavior.

For example, Hofstede’s Individualism vs. Collectivism dimension can relate to Vygotsky’s concept of cultural transmission. In individualistic societies, children may focus on personal achievement and self-expression, whereas in collectivist societies, children learn values centered around cooperation, group harmony, and interdependence. Both theories underscore that culture plays a pivotal role in shaping how people engage with the world and solve problems.

Conclusion

Both Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions and Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory underscore the profound influence of culture on human development. Hofstede’s dimensions explain how different societies approach fundamental issues such as power, uncertainty, individualism, and gender roles, which in turn influence the development of values, beliefs, and behaviors. Vygotsky’s theory extends this idea by focusing on how cultural transmission through social interaction shapes cognitive development. Together, these frameworks offer a comprehensive understanding of the intersection between culture and development, highlighting the importance of considering cultural contexts when studying human growth and behavior.

 "Summary" page 74-76

2.1 Describe the various developmental theories and explain how they are beneficial.

Theories are useful in organising and explaining the process of development and in stimulating and guiding developmental research, theory and practice. Theories differ in the degree to which they emphasise maturation versus experience, continuous versus stage-like development, the individual’s active versus passive participation, and the breadth of theoretical focus.

2.2 Analyse how psychodynamic theories have influenced our thinking about development.

Freud’s and Erikson’s theories see development as a dynamic process that occurs in a series of stages, each involving psychological conflicts that the developing person must resolve. According to Freud, personality development is energised by the conflicting functions of the id, ego and superego. Erikson’s theory outlines eight developmental stages that encompass the entire lifespan; by resolving the basic crisis of each stage — such as trust versus mistrust in infancy or intimacy versus isolation in young adulthood — the developing person attains what Erikson terms a virtue. So, for instance, the infant who resolves the trust/mistrust crisis attains the virtue of hope; the young adult who resolves the intimacy/isolation crisis attains love. Object relations approaches such as Mahler’s and Stern’s emphasise development as resulting from a child’s mental representations of early social and emotional relationships with caregivers and important others. Psychodynamic theories help us to understand the importance of attachment in intimate relationships throughout life and to conceptualise the process of identity formation in adolescence and adulthood, to name just two lifespan applications.

2.3 Examine how developmental theories based on learning theories have contributed to our understanding of developmental change.

Pavlov’s theory emphasises learning through classical conditioning as the main process through which developmental changes occur. Skinner’s operant conditioning theory emphasises the influence of reinforcement, punishment, extinction and shaping on developmental change. Bandura’s social cognitive theory emphasises reciprocal and interactional processes involving direct observational learning, modelling and vicarious reinforcement. Learning theories have applications across the lifespan, particularly in helping us to understand the influence of learning on development and helping individuals modify or eliminate problematic behaviours and learn new, desirable behaviours.

2.4 Justify how cognitive developmental theories help us to understand changes in thinking and problem solving throughout the lifespan.

Piaget’s theory explains the underlying structures and processes involved in the development of children’s thinking and problem solving. Piaget suggested that thinking develops in a series of increasingly complex and sophisticated stages, each of which incorporates the achievements of those preceding it. The developing person achieves new ways of thinking and problem solving through the joint processes of assimilation (fitting a new scheme into an existing one) and accommodation (changing an existing scheme to meet the challenges of a new situation).

Neo-Piagetian theorists Case and Fischer emphasise the role of mental space, skills acquisition, and information-processing capacity in cognitive development. Information-processing theory focuses on the steps involved in thinking. Information is stored in the sensory register, then in STM, and finally in LTM. As people grow older, they experience cognitive changes in control processes, metacognition and their knowledge bases. Cognitive theories help us to understand and foster intellectual development, problem-solving abilities and critical thinking skills throughout the lifespan.

2.5 Describe how contextual approaches to development have broadened our view of developmental change.

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory proposes that the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem and macrosystem form interactive and overlapping contexts for development. Vygotsky emphasises the contribution of history and culture to development, which takes place within a child’s zone of proximal development. Lerner’s contextual approach emphasises the dynamic, interactive, reciprocal relationships between individual development and changes in the contexts in which development occurs, such as education, work and family. Elder suggests education, work and family create the social trajectories, or pathways, that guide individual development. Ethological theory focuses on the developmental roles of behavioural dispositions and traits, such as temperament and attachment, that are thought to have evolutionary survival value for the human species. These theories are very useful in explaining how development throughout the life course interacts with and is influenced by the context in which the development occurs.

2.6 Compare and contrast how adult developmental changes differ from child and adolescent developmental changes.

Normative-crisis theories focus on fairly predictable changes that occur over the lifespan, particularly during the adult years. Timing-of-events theory emphasises the role of both normative and non-normative transitions in an individual’s life course and how social expectations may be internalised in a ‘social clock’ against which we judge our own development. Dynamic systems theory views the child’s mind, body, physical and social worlds as a dynamic integrated system. A change in the system leads the child to modify and re-organise their behaviour so the various components of the system work together in a more complex and effective manner.

2.7 Evaluate how comparing and contrasting developmental theories assists us in understanding developmental change.

Although developmental theories differ in both focus and explanatory concepts, collectively they provide a fairly comprehensive view of the process of developmental change. By systematically organising what we already know about development and proposing explanations that can be tested through formal and informal observations, developmental theories can be useful for non-experts, as well as experts.

KEY TERMS

accommodation In Piaget’s theory, the process of modifying existing ideas or actions and skills to fit new experiences.

adaptation Piaget’s term for the process by which development occurs; concepts are deepened or broadened by assimilation and stretched or modified by accommodation, through interaction with the environment.

assimilation In Piaget’s theory, a method by which a person responds to new experiences by using existing concepts to interpret new ideas and experiences.

attachment Intimate and enduring emotional relationship between two people, such as infant and caregiver, characterised by reciprocal affection and a periodic desire to maintain physical closeness.

behaviour modification A body of techniques based on behaviourism for changing or eliminating specific behaviours.

classical conditioning A form of learning in which an organism associates a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that leads to a reflexive response. Once the connections between the two stimuli are made, the new stimulus will produce the behaviour by itself.

dynamic systems approach The view of the child’s mind, body, physical world and social environment as part of an integrated, dynamic system. Changes to any part of this system will lead to changes in the system as a whole.

ego According to Freud, the rational, realistic part of the personality which coordinates impulses from the id with demands imposed by the superego and by society.

id In Freud’s theory, the part of an individual’s personality that is present at birth; unconscious, impulsive and unrealistic; and that attempts to satisfy a person’s biological and emotional needs and desires by maximising pleasure and avoiding pain.

information-processing theory Explanations of cognition that focus on the precise, detailed features or steps of mental activities. These theories often use computers as models for human thinking.

long-term memory (LTM) The largest memory storage area of the information-processing system which permanently preserves our knowledge base through storing, managing and retrieving information for use at any later time.

metacognition Knowledge and thinking about cognition; knowing how learning and memory operate in everyday situations, and how one can improve cognitive performance through the use of metacognitive strategies.

normative-crisis model Explanations that view developmental change in terms of a series of distinct periods or stages influenced by physical and cognitive performance.

object relations The child’s relationships with the important people (called objects) in their environment and the process by which their qualities become part of the child’s personality and mental life.

observational learning The tendency of a child to imitate or model behaviour and attitudes of caregivers and other nurturant individuals.

operant conditioning According to Skinner, a process of learning in which a person or an animal increases the frequency of a behaviour in response to repeated reinforcement of that behaviour.

punishment According to Skinner, any stimulus that temporarily suppresses the response that it follows.

reinforcement According to Skinner, any stimulus that increases the likelihood that a behaviour will be repeated in similar circumstances.

scheme According to Piaget, a specific structure or organised pattern of behaviour or thought that represents a group of ideas and events in a person’s experience.

sensory register A component of the information-processing system where sights and sounds are immediately represented but only briefly stored.

short-term memory (STM) The limited-capacity memory storage area of the information-processing system which stores information for only a short length of time, merely seconds, without rehearsal.

social trajectory The pathway or direction that development takes over an individual’s life course, which is influenced by the school, work, family and other important social settings in which they participate.

superego In Freud’s theory, the part of personality that acts as an all-knowing, internalised parent. It has two parts: the conscience, which enforces moral and social conventions by punishing violations with guilt, and the ego-ideal, which provides an idealised, internal set of standards for regulating and evaluating one’s thoughts, feelings and actions.

theory A set of statements that are an orderly and integrated description, explanation and prediction of human behaviour in various developmental domains. A theory’s continued existence depends on scientific verification. All theories must be tested using a set of research strategies.

timing-of-events model Explanations that view developmental change in terms of important life events such as marriage and parenthood that people are expected to complete according to a culturally determined timetable.

zone of proximal development According to Vygotsky, the level of difficulty at which problems are too hard for children to solve alone but not too hard when given support from adults or more competent peers.

• Chapter 3 - "Multicultural view" page 97,

In Australia, antenatal screening for fetal anomalies is routinely offered to all pregnant women, but it is under-utilized by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, partly due to limited access in remote areas and cultural differences (Elsum et al., 2020; Wild et al., 2013). Machado-Joseph disease (MJD), a genetic condition prevalent in northern Australia’s small Aboriginal communities, has one of the highest rates globally. The MJD Foundation aims to provide culturally appropriate genetic education and counseling to these communities. MJD is an autosomal dominant disorder causing muscle weakness and disability, with a 50% chance of inheritance. The Foundation’s model involves a community- and family-centered approach, recognizing both biomedical and traditional cultural understandings. They deliver genetic education through culturally relevant resources in native languages and host community sessions, often outdoors, with separate group sessions for men and women, in alignment with community preferences.

"Looking forward" and "Summary" page 126-130

Continuity Within Change highlights how physical development from conception to birth, though rapid and dramatic, follows predictable patterns due to genetic inheritance and environmental factors. The newborn is also primed for later cognitive and psychosocial changes.

Lifelong Growth discusses how growth continues throughout life, with physical, cognitive, and psychosocial changes occurring in infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood, even though the rate of change varies. Notably, cognitive and psychosocial aspects can continue to evolve into adulthood.

Changing Meanings and Vantage Points explores how the meanings of developmental milestones (like the infant's first steps or words) change throughout life, both for the individual and those around them, as everyone undergoes developmental changes.

Developmental Diversity emphasizes the uniqueness of each individual, shaped by their genetic inheritance, prenatal experiences, and later environments. Even genetically identical twins can exhibit differences due to varying life experiences.

Prenatal Development is marked by stages from conception to birth, each with distinct developmental milestones. It also highlights the risks to both mother and child during pregnancy, including teratogenic effects and the importance of prenatal care.

Genetics and Environment work together to shape development. The interplay between a person's genetic makeup and the environment in which they grow determines their physical, cognitive, and behavioral traits, with ongoing interaction throughout life.

Lecture:

Some factors associated with individual differences • Culture • Biological processes • Socioenvironmental factors • Non-normative life events ….. For example, adolescence starts with onset of puberty • Biological processes result in physical maturity and reproductive competence • Hormonally driven – testosterone, Oestradiol, DHEA • Sex steroids impact brain development – androgens and oestrogens influences progressive and regressive events in brain remodelling • Chronological age and pubertal hormones have independent influences on structural development of the brain during adolescence

Working memory capacity increases with age across childhood

Understanding what to expect across development • Often when developmental clinicians and researchers talk about age ranges we talk about averages • e.g. times on average when adolescence starts, working memory capacity and reaching milestones • Variability becomes noteworthy when there is considerable deviation • e.g. clinical neuropsychologist might track language development • e.g. research neuropsychologist might examine early markers of language impairment

Ethics often refers to a codified set of values or principles that guide the conduct of specific subsets of people (e.g. psychologists) In Australia we use the APS Code of Ethics – although the codes might differ in Malaysia and other countries, there are major similarities: • Protect participants from harm • Maintain privacy • Use of deception must be justified and cause no harm • Informed consent

Different approaches to understanding development • To what extent does development reflect maturation (nature) and/or experience (nurture)? • Is development a process (continuous) or stage (series of discontinuous stages)? • Does the individual take an active or passive role in their development? • Does it explain a broad or narrow aspect of development?

Psychodynamic theories • Freudian theory • Erikson’s psychosocial theory • Mahler’s phases of development Applications: • Formation of attachments • Development of autonomy and self-control during infancy and toddlerhood • Development of intimate relationships during adolescence and adulthood

Freudian Theory Believed sexual desire the driving force behind development Personality comprises three hypothetical mental structures • Id – unconscious – seeks immediate and unrestrained pleasure • Ego – rational and conscious – reality, seeks satisfaction within the constraints imposed by superego • Superego – moral and ethical component – conscience, restricts the satisfaction of desires

Erikson’s psychosocial theory Driving force behind development was the need to become integrated into the social and cultural environment

Behavioural and social cognitive learning theories • Pavolv’s classical conditioning • Skinner’s operant conditioning • Bandura’s social learning (or social cognitive) theory Application: • Behaviour modification techniques and CBT approaches – e.g. to eliminate undesirable behaviours and increase desirable responses e.g. for families and children with ADHD, eating disorders • ACT derived from studies of learning theories

Skinner’s operational conditioning • Positive reinforcement – following a particular response a rewarding stimulus is given that increases the response and increases the likelihood it will recur under similar circumstances • e.g. reward system for child doing chores, company offering incentives for meeting sales targets • Negative reinforcement – strengthens a response and increases the chance of its recurrence, but by removing an undesirable stimulus following the occurrence of that response • e.g. detention for getting to school late, fine for speeding, owning a club card where you collect points • Punishment weakens or suppresses a behavioural response by either adding an unpleasant stimulus or removing a pleasurable one following the response’s occurrence.

Cognitive development theories • Piaget’s cognitive theory • Neo-Piagetian approaches • Information-processing theory • Moral development theories Application: • To foster infant cognitive development and critical thinking in adolescence • Can explain development in sensori-motor, symbolic thought, language and problem solving • To examine changes in crystallised (learned) and fluid intelligence (ability to process information) with age

Contextual development theories • Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological systems theory • Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory Application: • Understand how individual development interacts with the context in which it occurs • Examine the multiple factors influencing issues • Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development important in understanding the development of problem solving and the culturally specific nature this may take • Ethological theory applications in temperament, emotion and attachment

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological settings for developmental change Emphasises the influences of the broader cultural environment that people experience as they develop, and the ways different levels interact • In contrast to stages of human development • Emphasises children are active participants in their development (rather than passive recipients of external influences) • Added a biological dimension in later writing

Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory Zone of proximal development (ZPD) ▪ There are a range of tasks that are too complex to be mastered alone but can be accomplished with guidance and encouragement from a more skilful partner ▪ Greater improvement with help = greater increases in ZPD Scaffolding ▪ the expert carefully tailors their support to the novice learner to assure their understanding ▪ Support for learning and problem solving that encourages independence and growth

Adulthood and lifespan development theories • Normative-crisis approach of adult development • Vaillant’s adaptive mechanism • Levinson’s seasons of adult lives

Adulthood and lifespan development theories • Normative-crisis approach of adult development • Vaillant’s adaptive mechanism • Levinson’s seasons of adult lives • Timing of events model • New directions: Dynamic systems perspective • Developmental psychopathology framework.

Reflecting on theories • Help to systematically organise ideas • Can stimulate new thinking and guide understandings and professional practice • No one theory can provide a complete explanation, but together may be complementary • Need to remain critical in our considerations about theories

Biological

Genetic abnormalities Abnormal chromosomes • e.g. Down syndrome Abnormal genes • Dominant gene disorders – e.g. Huntington’s disease • Recessive gene disorders – e.g. Sickle-cell disease Multifactorial • e.g. congenital heart disease

Genetic counselling and prenatal diagnosis • Aims to assist individuals and families in assessing their chances of giving birth to an infant with genetic disorders, and choose the most suitable course of action for them • Likely to be beneficial for individuals who may carry genetic disorders, or relatives who do • Some questions raised concerning ethics, and new forms of eugenics to ensure ‘better babies

Relative influence of heredity and environment Behaviour genetics researchers study how genetic inheritance (genotype) and environmental experience jointly influence physical and behavioural development (phenotype) Heritability - estimate of the extent to which genes are responsible for differences among people within a specific population (not direct measure) • Reflects genetic influence, as well as how much the environment allows the genes to be expressed • Ranges from 0 to 100 à Higher heritability = more the characteristic is thought to be influenced by genes

Relative influence of heredity and environment – study methods 1. Twin studies • Monozygotic (MZ) twins share 100% genes • Dizygotic (DZ) twins and siblings share 40-60% e.g. Australian twin study showed children’s NAPLAN scores (literacy and numeracy) were primarily influenced by genes , with smaller influence from enviroment 2. Adoption studies • Adoptive children have no genetic resemblance to their adoptive family • Study whether behaviours or traits of adoptive children are more similar to: a. biological parents – indicating stronger genetic influence b. adoptive family – indicating stronger environment influence

Relative influence of heredity and environment – study methods II 3. Twin adoption studies • Compare pairs of identical twins raised apart in different environments - most effective method for understanding the relative contributions of heredity and environment • BUT logistically difficulty and adoptive families chosen with the goal of offering twins similar socioeconomic, cultural, religious experiences … Three Identical Strangers documentary identifies a study that used this approach

 4. Linkage and association studies • Enable identification of polymorphisms – segments of human DNA that are inherited together in predictable patterns, as genetic markers for the genes near which they are located. • Linkage studies – co-inherited of linked with a particular train in families usually prone to that trait e.g. genetic marker for Huntington’s disease and fragile X syndrome • Association studies – compare the relative frequency of polymorphisms in two populations (with and without the trait) e.g. genome wide association studies

Gene-environment interactions Epigenesis Development reflects morning  interactions between genotype and environment • Epigenetic theory assumes genetic activity responds constantly to environmental influences • Thus development is influenced by genes but not purely determined by them Reaction range Genes can influence development by establishing boundaries for environmental influences, rather than specifying a precise characteristics • e.g. Height – genes establish the reaction range’s upper and lower boundaries, and actual height (phenotype) is determined by environmental factors such as nutrition and disease

Decisions and issues Infertility • Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) techniques available – success dependent on factors such as cause of infertility, maternal age, method used Contraception • Voluntary methods to regulate number and spacing of children Abortion • Termination of pregnancy, differing attitudes (social, government, religious, medical etc), importance of counselling

Prenatal influences on the child The sequence and timing of development of each new organ and body part is critical – • Canalisation – tendency of genes to narrowly direct or restrict growth and development of particular physical and behavioural characteristics to a single (or very very) phenotypic outcome and to resist environmental factors that push development in other directions. • Plasticity - tendency of critical periods in development (windows of opportunity) • Risk factors – increase the chance that the future baby will have medical problems

 Harmful substances, diseases and environmental hazards • Medicinal drugs e.g. Thalidomide • Non-medical drugs e.g. foetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) • Maternal disease e.g. HIV leading to paediatric HIV/AINDS • Environmental hazards e.g. physical, biological, chemical, radiation

Maternal age and physical characteristics Domestic violence • Age of birth mother >35 years = higher risk of infertility and Down syndrome, complications rates increase >45 years • Teenage birth mother = higher risk for low birth-weight, stillbirth, birth complications Domestic violence a serious hazard for pregnant women and their babies • 4–8% pregnant women experience domestic violence • Mothers of low socioeconomic status, Indigenous mothers and women with disability or from CALD backgrounds have higher rates of domestic violencecohort