Unit 5

Defining Abnormal Behavior (The Four Ds)

1. Distress

• Definition: Psychological disorders often cause personal distress, meaning the person feels extreme discomfort, suffering, or emotional pain.

• Example: Someone with major depressive disorder feels overwhelming sadness and hopelessness, making daily life difficult.

2. Dysfunction (Maladaptiveness)

• Definition: The behavior significantly interferes with daily life, relationships, or job performance.

• Example: An individual with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) spends hours performing compulsions, preventing them from leaving the house on time.

3. Deviance (Unconventionality)

• Definition: Behavior that violates societal norms or expectations and is considered statistically or socially unusual.

• Example: Someone experiencing auditory hallucinations (hearing voices) in a culture where this is not a norm would be seen as deviating from typical behavior.

4. Irrationality

• Definition: The behavior or thought process does not make logical sense or is disconnected from reality.

• Example: A person with schizophrenia who believes they are being monitored by the government despite no evidence.

Additional Criteria That Can Help Define Disorders

5. Unpredictability

• Definition: Sudden, erratic behavior that seems to have no rational explanation.

• Example: A person who suddenly lashes out aggressively in a calm situation.

6. Observer Discomfort

• Definition: The behavior makes others feel uneasy or disturbed.

• Example: A person who loudly talks to themselves in public, causing others to feel uncomfortable.

Foundational Concepts

• Psychological Disorder – A syndrome marked by a clinically significant disturbance in cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior that interferes with daily life.

• Medical Model – The concept that psychological disorders have biological causes and can be diagnosed, treated, and sometimes cured.

• Biopsychosocial Approach – A framework for understanding disorders that integrates biological, psychological, and social-cultural factors.

• Diathesis-Stress Model – Suggests that a disorder arises from a genetic predisposition (diathesis) combined with environmental stressors.

• Epigenetics – The study of how environmental factors influence gene expression without changing DNA.

Classifying Disorders

• DSM-5-TR – The American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, used for classifying psychological disorders.

• Labeling Controversy – Some psychologists argue that diagnostic labels can stigmatize individuals, create bias, and oversimplify human behavior.

Anxiety, OCD, and Trauma-Related Disorders

• Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) – Persistent and excessive worry that is difficult to control.

• Panic Disorder – Sudden, intense episodes of panic attacks with physical symptoms like a racing heart and shortness of breath.

• Specific Phobia – An irrational fear of a specific object or situation that leads to avoidance behavior.

• Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) – Characterized by obsessions (unwanted thoughts) and compulsions (repetitive behaviors) performed to reduce anxiety.

• Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) – A disorder following trauma, marked by flashbacks, nightmares, hypervigilance, and emotional numbness.

Depressive and Bipolar Disorders

• Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) – Persistent sadness, hopelessness, and loss of interest lasting at least two weeks.

• Persistent Depressive Disorder (Dysthymia) – A chronic, long-term form of depression with milder symptoms.

• Bipolar I Disorder – Alternating periods of full manic episodes and depression.

• Bipolar II Disorder – Alternates between hypomania (less intense mania) and major depression.

• Rumination – The tendency to repeatedly focus on negative thoughts, worsening depression.

Schizophrenia and Psychotic Disorders

• Schizophrenia – A severe disorder marked by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and diminished emotional expression.

• Chronic Schizophrenia – Symptoms develop slowly over time, with less chance of recovery.

• Acute Schizophrenia – Symptoms appear suddenly, often in response to stress, and may improve with treatment.

• Delusion – A false belief (e.g., paranoia, grandiosity) despite contradictory evidence.

Personality and Dissociative Disorders

• Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) – A rare disorder where a person exhibits two or more distinct identities.

• Antisocial Personality Disorder – A pattern of disregard for others, lack of empathy, and manipulative behavior.

• Three Clusters of Personality Disorders:

• Cluster A (Odd/Eccentric) – Paranoid, schizoid, schizotypal.

• Cluster B (Dramatic/Erratic) – Antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic.

• Cluster C (Anxious/Fearful) – Avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive.

Eating and Neurodevelopmental Disorders

• Anorexia Nervosa – Characterized by self-starvation, intense fear of weight gain, and body image distortion.

• Bulimia Nervosa – Episodes of binge eating followed by purging (vomiting, laxatives, fasting, excessive exercise).

• Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) – A neurodevelopmental disorder marked by impaired social interaction, repetitive behaviors, and restricted interests.

• ADHD (Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder) – Characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.

Therapies and Treatments

• Psychotherapy – A broad term for treating mental disorders through talk therapy and psychological techniques.

• Biomedical Therapy – Treatment using medications or medical procedures to affect brain function.

• Eclectic Approach – Combining multiple therapeutic techniques for a tailored treatment plan.

Major Therapy Approaches

• Psychoanalysis (Freud) – Uses techniques like free association and dream analysis to uncover unconscious conflicts.

• Psychodynamic Therapy – An updated version of psychoanalysis that focuses on self-awareness and emotional insight.

• Humanistic Therapy (Rogers) – Focuses on self-growth, active listening, and unconditional positive regard.

• Behavior Therapy – Uses conditioning techniques to modify behavior, such as:

• Systematic Desensitization – Gradual exposure to fears.

• Aversive Conditioning – Associating an unwanted behavior with an unpleasant stimulus.

• Token Economy – Reward-based reinforcement system.

• Cognitive Therapy (Beck & Ellis) – Focuses on changing negative thought patterns to improve mental health.

• Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) – A blend of cognitive restructuring and behavior modification.

Biomedical Treatments

• Psychopharmacology – The study of how drugs affect mental disorders.

• Antipsychotic Drugs – Used to treat schizophrenia by reducing dopamine activity.

• Antianxiety Drugs – Depress central nervous system activity to reduce anxiety symptoms.

• Antidepressant Drugs – Increase neurotransmitters like serotonin and norepinephrine to improve mood.

• Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) – A last-resort treatment for severe depression using electric shocks to induce seizures.

• Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) – Uses magnetic pulses to stimulate brain regions linked to depression.

• Lobotomy – A rare psychosurgical procedure that severs connections in the brain’s frontal lobes, historically used to treat severe mental illness.

Prevention and Ethical Considerations

• Resilience – The ability to withstand stress and recover from adversity.

• Therapeutic Alliance – A strong relationship between therapist and client, critical for effective therapy.

• Evidence-Based Practice – Therapy methods that are scientifically validated for effectiveness.

• Ethical Principles in Therapy – Includes confidentiality, informed consent, beneficence, and non-maleficence.