How serious was the opposition of the extreme left to the Weimar Republic?

Introduction:

• After German Revolution of 1918-9 left-wing movement in state of confusion:

  • i) moderate socialists of German SPD committed to parliamentary democracy.

  • ii) Communists (KPD) pressed for workers’ revolution

  • iii) USPD stood for creation of radical socialist society within democratic framework.

• Situation became clearer when in 1920 the USPD disbanded + vast majority of its members joined either the KPD or the SPD; so from that time, there were 2 left-wing alternative parties, but with fundamental differences.

• Continuing political violence as parties of left and right set up armed + uniformed paramilitary squads to guard their meetings, march through the streets + beat up their opponents.

• Violence on streets became the norm as political differences became more polarized.

Chronology – Political Extremism 1919-23:

• 1919 January: Spartacist rising in Berlin

• March: Second Spartacist rising in berlin

• April: Strikes in Halle + the Ruhr

• October: Assassination of Hugo Haase

• 1920 February: Kapp Putsch

• April: Workers’ revolts in Saxony + Thuringia

• 1921 March: Communist-led revolt in Saxony, spread to Hamburg + the Ruhr

• August: Assassination of Erzberger

• 1922 June: Assassination of Rathenau

• 1923 October: Communist-led revolt in Saxony

• November: Beer Hall Putsch in Munich.

KPD Opposition to Weimar:

• KPD believed parliamentary democracy fell long way short of real aims; wanted revolution to proceed on Marxist lines with creation of one-party communist state + restructuring of Germany socially + economically.

• As result of 1917 Russian Revolution, many German Communists were encouraged to believe that revolution would spread throughout Europe.

• KPD’s opposition to the Republic was nothing less than complete rejection of Weimar system = not prepared to be part of democratic opposition or work within parliamentary system to bring about desired changes.

• Differences between moderate + extreme left so fundamental there was no chance of political cooperation between them, let alone coming together in one socialist movement.

• KPD were reasonable political force in years 1919-23, enjoying support of 10-15% of electorate + there were continuous revolutionary disturbances – protests, strikes + uprisings.

Marxism:

• Karl Marx (1818-83) was German revolutionary who expressed his ideology in two major books, ‘The Communist Manifesto’ and ‘Capital’, in which he outlined his scientific analysis of human society.

• He claimed that history was continuous struggle of classes between those who had economic + political power and those who didn’t  continuous process of class struggle known as dialectic.

• Marxists in 19th c. were inspired by belief that industrial age would culminate win revolution in which proletariat (working classes) would overthrow the bourgeoisie (industrial classes) by revolution + create classless society.

Challenge from the Left – the Spartacist Revolt

• In January 1919 the Spartacists decided time ripe to launch armed rising in Berlin with aim of overthrowing provisional govt. in order to create soviet republic

• On 5 Jan. 1919, the Spartacus League, known as the Spartacists, led by Karl Liebknecht + Rosa Luxemburg, staged armed uprising in berlin to overthrow Ebert’s govt. + set up revolutionary communist regime. Newspaper offices + some public buildings were occupied. They called for general strike + formed revolutionary committee.

• Karl Liebknecht (1871-1919): lawyer by profession, son of Wilhelm Liebknecht, one of the founding members of the SPD in 1875 + thus had thorough grounding in socialist politics in his youth. As a committed Marxist, he adopted a strong anti-war position in 1914 + continued to agitate against the war, for which he was imprisoned in 1916. Released in Nov. 1918 in amnesty for political prisoners, he resumed his political activities as one of the leading figures in the revolutionary Spartacus League. During Spartacist rby Freikorps, tortured + shot in the back on pretext he was trying to escape.

• Rosa Luxemburg (1871-1919): Born in Russian Poland but became German citizen after marrying Gustav Lubeck. Had long career in revolutionary politics in both Russia + Germany, having been involved in 1905 Russian Revolution. In Germany she was imprisoned in 1916 for involvement in anti-war agitation but was released in Nov. 1918 under amnesty for political prisoners. Resumed revolutionary activities + was leading figure in Spartacus League. During Spartacist rising in Jan 1919, she was captured by Freikorps, beaten + then shot. Her body was thrown into a canal.

• Revolt was poorly prepared + poorly supported as Spartacists hadn’t secured the support of the majority of working class in Berlin, in whose name they claimed to be acting.

• Ebert’s govt. relied upon the army to put down the revolt, but General Groener had few reliable military units at his command + therefore had to use irregular forces of the new Freikorps.

• By 13 Jan Spartacist rising had been crushed after brutal street fighting in which many prisoners, including Liebknecht + Luxemburg were executed. Over 100 were killed.

• Defeat of uprising cleared way for govt. to hold elections to the Constituent Assembly later in Jan. but brutality with which revolt had been suppressed + Ebert’s reliance on army and Freikorps, deepened divisions on left for many years to come.

• Uprising of Jan. 1919 showed Spartacists were strong on policies, but detached from political realities  had no real strategy and ‘revolutionaries’ were mainly just workers with rifles.

• By contrast, the govt., led by defence minister Gustav Noske, had not only backing of army’s troops but also 120 ‘irregular’ military-style groups, Freikorps, with about 400,000 soldiers. He placed his trust in the generals in change to use unrestrained force against disturbances.

Freikorps:

• Faced with disintegration of much of the regular army in chaos of defeat + revolution at end of 1918, Field Marshal Hindenburg + General Groener encouraged former officers to recruit volunteer forces into new Freikorps units.

• Majority of recruits came from demobilized junior army officers and NCOs (e.g. corporals + sergeants) but Freikorps also attracted students, adventurers + drifters.

• Placed under overall command of General Walter Luttwitz, Freikorps were supplied with uniforms + weapons from army stores but weren’t officially part of the army.

• Therefore, in action the Freikorps were less disciplined + were able to give full expression to their ‘rabid spirit of aggression and revenge’ as historian Richard Evans says in ‘The Coming of the Third Reich’.

Subsequent Left-Wing Risings:

• Defeat of Spartacists didn’t end left-wing rebellion.

• Workers, who’d played key role in overthrow of Kaiser in Nov. 1918 had been disillusioned by ‘revolution’ that followed + frustrated that Weimar Republic seemed too ready to compromise with the right.

• Economic conditions also bred disorder, while demobilized soldiers found it hard to adjust to civilian life.

• Although new German Communist Party (KPD) had only minority support in Germany, it was nevertheless a committed, radical minority with strong support in the industrial centres in the Ruhr + Saxony.

• Inspired by example of successful Russian Bolshevik revolution in 1917, and heavily influenced by Comintern, the KPD was keen to lead a communist revolution in Germany.

• Comintern: Communist International, set up in 1919 to oversee actions of Marxist parties across the world; Socialist groups from other countries were invited to join + receive support, but leadership was in the hands of the Russian Communist Party.

• H/e ultimately KPD didn’t have support or determination to lead revolution in Germany.

• March 1919: Another Spartacist rising in Berlin. In Bavaria, a communist govt. based on workers’ councils was established. These were both suppressed.

• April 1919: Wave of strikes in Germany’s industrial heartlands of Halle + the Ruhr valley. As well as asking for shorter hours, the strikes demanded more control over their own industries + govt. based on workers’ councils.

• 1920: Troubles continued, and after workers had shown their power in defeating right-wing Kapp Putsch with general strike in Berlin, communists formed ‘Red Army’ of 50,000 workers + seized control of Ruhr. A virtual civil war followed as regular army + Freikorps struggled to crush rising. Troubles also broke out in Halle + Dresden + over 1000 workers + 250 soldiers + police were killed. More disturbances in Saxony + Thuringia, where workers organized self-defence units were also put down in April.

• March 1921: KPD tried to force a revolution, beginning with rising in Saxony. Strike disruption spread to Hamburg + Ruhr, but risings were crushed by police + 145 people were killed.

• 1923: There was a further bout of strike activity at the time of Germany’s economic collapse. This was again centred in Saxony + Hamburg, but it too was suppressed.

‘Red Bavaria’:

• After collapse of Bavarian monarchy, USPD leader Kurt Eisner took political lead.

• H/e he struggled to unite socialist parties to implement reforms + was assassinated on 21 Feb. 1919.

• Confusion broke out  Bavarian soviet republic with ‘Red Army’ of workers was set up by Eugen Levine and proposed radical political + economic changes.

• Yet after a month the Freikorps + the army moved in + brutally crushed republic with 1000 deaths in May, event becoming known as the ‘White Terror’.

• This traumatic episode in a conservative, agricultural Catholic area shifted politics to the right wing + it became a haven for extremists.

The ‘German October’:

• In crisis of 1923, left-wing revolutionary actions came to a head in central Germany.

• KPD + SPD formed coalitions in regional govts. of Saxony + Thuringia, but Communists went further + made military preparations for uprising with ‘Proletarian Hundreds’ (defence units).

• In response, Stresemann’s govt. acted rapidly to foil plan for ‘German October’ Revolution – army crushed units + regional govts. were re-created without communists.

Conclusion:

• Govt. was never seriously threatened by left-wing revolts, but continued working-class rebellions did damage the Republic as fear of a ‘red revolution’ frightened the law-abiding middle classes into supporting right-wing parties.

• Events created v. troubled atmosphere - elections for National Assembly duly took place in Jan 1919, although continuation of strikes + street disorder in Berlin meant for security reasons the Assembly’s first meeting was switched to the town of Weimar.

• Freikorps brought disturbances under control although at cost of hundreds of lives.

• Actions by extreme left gave impression Germany was really facing Bolshevik-inspired ‘Red threat’ + as result of right-wing propaganda many Germans began to have exaggerated fears about possibility of impending revolution.

• Yet it’s clear looking back that extreme left posed much less of threat to Weimar than believed  despite all disturbances, revolutionary left never really likely to seize power.

Main reasons for failure of extreme left:

In conclusion, extreme left was just not powerful enough to lead a revolution against the Weimar Republic.