AP World History: Modern Key Takeaways — Period 1 (1200-1450)
The spread of religion, aided by the increase in trade, often acted as a unifying social force. Throughout East Asia, the development of Neo-Confucianism solidified a cultural identity. Islam created a new cultural world known as Dar al-Islam, which transcended political and linguistic boundaries in Asia and Africa. Christianity and the Catholic Church served as unifying forces in Europe.
Centralized empires like the Arab Caliphates and the Song Dynasty built on the successful models of the past, while decentralized areas (Western Europe and Japan) developed political organization to more effectively deal with their unique issues. The peoples of the Americas saw new, large-scale political structures develop, such as the Inca Empire in the Andes and the Mississippian culture in North America.
The movement of people greatly altered the world politically and demographically. Traveling groups, such as the Turks and Mongols, disrupted much of Asia’s existing political structure. Turkic peoples founded the Mumluk and Delhi Sultanates. The recovery from the Mongol period introduced political structures that defined many areas for centuries to follow.
There was tremendous growth in long-distance trade. Technological developments such as the compass improved shipbuilding technology, and gunpowder shaped the development of the world. Trade through the Silk Road, the Indian Ocean, the trans-Saharan routes, and the Mediterranean Sea led to the spread of ideas, religions, and technology. Interregional cultural exchanges, represented by early world travelers like Ibn Battuta and Marco Polo, increased due to the Mongol Conquests.
War, disease, and famine caused massive social and political upheaval throughout Eurasia. The Black Death killed over a third of the European population, and the resulting labor shortfall increased the bargaining power of peasants, diminishing the system of feudalism. The Mongol Conquests led to a massive death toll from Korea to Russia to the Middle East, weakening many regions for centuries to come as European powers expanded outward.
Western Europe and China saw significant economic and political recoveries. The Italian city-states grew prosperous enough to support the burgeoning Renaissance, which was partly inspired by ancient Greek works recovered from Islamic scholars. The Ming Dynasty experienced a cultural flowering that resulted in great works of art. The Ming also supported major naval expeditions by Zheng He.
Key Terms: Period 1 (1200-1450)
Remember that the AP World History exam tests you on the depth of your knowledge, not just your ability to recall facts. While we have provided brief definitions here, you will need to know these terms in even more depth for the AP exam, including how terms connect to broader historical themes and understandings.
Cultural Developments and Belief Systems
Neo-Confucianism: Popular during the Tang Dynasty; fused elements of Buddhism and Confucianism.
Catholic Church: The largest of the three main branches of Christianity; centered in Rome and led by the pope; found most often in Europe, the Americas, sub-Saharan Africa, and parts of East Asia.
Eastern Orthodox Church: The third largest of the three main branches of Christianity; originally based in the Byzantine Empire; found most often in Russia, Eastern Europe, the Balkans, and parts of Central Asia.
Shi’a: One of the two main branches of Islam; rejects the first three Sunni caliphs and regards Ali, the fourth caliph, as Muhammad’s first true successor; most commonly found in Iran, but otherwise constitutes 10 to 15 percent of Muslims worldwide.
Sunni: One of the two main branches of Islam; commonly described as orthodox and differs from Shi’a in its understanding of the Sunnah and in its acceptance of the first three caliphs; is by far the most common branch of Islam worldwide.
Civilizations in the Americas
Chinampa: A form of Mesoamerican agriculture in which farmers cultivated crops in rectangular plots of land on lake beds; hosted corns, beans, chilis, squash, tomatoes, and more; provided up to seven harvests per year.
Mit’a: A mandatory public service system in the Inca Empire requiring all people below the age of 50 to serve for two months out of the year; not to be confused with the mita, a forced labor system practiced by conquistadors in the former Inca Empire.
Civilizations in East Asia
Mandate of Heaven: Ancient Chinese concept stating that the right to rule was granted by the heavens; used to explain the rise of every Chinese dynasty, including the Qing in 1644.
Grand Canal: World’s longest canal, connecting the fertile Huang He River to the highly populated cities in the north; allowed grain to be shipped easily.
Champa rice: Introduced to China from Vietnam; allowed the Chinese to have two harvests per year, dramatically improving output; combined with an improved infrastructure, led to a significant growth of the Chinese population.
Islamic Golden Age
Al-Andalus: Islamic state located in modern-day Spain; led by the Berbers; renowned for its achievements in science, mathematics, and trade.
Astrolabe: Introduced to the Islamic world in the 700s, where it was perfected by mathematicians; used by astronomers and navigators to determine latitude through inclination.
Trans-Saharan trade: Trade network starting in the 400s and 500s; thrived due to an organized network of camel caravans carrying gold, salt, cloth, slaves, and other valuables; allowed the kingdoms of Ghana and Mali to thrive, and as Islam spread to Africa, allowed its teachings to impact the lives of kings and traders.
Europe during the Late Middle Ages
Feudalism: Political and economic system that developed as a result of the decentralization and collapse of the Western Roman Empire; lords, usually noblemen, protected vassals in exchange for mandatory labor or military service; vassals received a fief, or grant of land.
Bills of exchange: Written guarantees of payment that were essentially the forerunners of modern-day bank checks; helped facilitate trade; known as sakk in the Islamic world; also used in China during this period.
Crusades: Holy wars launched by Pope Urban II in 1095 that called for Christians to reclaim the Holy Land of Israel from Muslims; its four campaigns, lasting over 100 years, were unsuccessful; stimulated European-Muslim trade and reintroduced Europeans to wisdom that had been last taught during the Classical period.
Nomadic and Traveling Empires
Ottomans: Group of Anatolian Turks who, in their dedication to Islam, attacked the weakening Byzantine Empire and captured Constantinople in 1453; expanded to create an empire in the Middle East and Southeast Europe; collapsed after World War I.
Mongols: Group of Central Asian nomads from Mongolia who, under the leadership of Genghis Khan, conquered large portions of the Asian continent; four empires, centered on Russia, China, Persia, and the Central Asian steppes, were led by Khan’s successors until the Mongol Empire collapsed into disunity and civil war.
Genghis Khan: Mongol clan leader who united the clans and made the Mongols the most feared force in Asia; under his leadership, the Mongol Empire expanded greatly into China, Persia, Central Asia, and Tibet; sons ruled the Four Khanates that followed; grandson, Kublai Khan, became leader of the Yuan Dynasty in 1271.
Civilizations in Africa
Mansa Musa: Ruling from 1312 to 1337, he was the most famous of the Mali emperors; capital city, Timbuktu, was a center of trade, culture, and education; most famous for going on pilgrimage to Mecca (a practice that few Muslims in his time actually did) carrying a large caravan with satchels of gold, which he used to fund schools and mosques across North Africa.
Swahili city-states: Cities in East Africa (present- day Somalia, Kenya, and Tanzania) that became bustling ports due to interchanges between Bantu and Arab mariners; in an effort to facilitate trade, the Bantus created a hybrid language, Swahili, that allowed them to communicate with the Arabs (a language that is still spoken by over 80 million East Africans).
Interregional Economic and Cultural Exchange
Melaka: Located in modern-day Malaysia; port city that became a waystation for sea traders from China and India in the fourteenth century.
Bubonic plague: Disease that spread from China to Europe through rats and decimated Europe’s population; ended the feudal system and led many people to question religion; also known as the Black Plague or the Black Death.
Ibn Battuta: Islamic traveler who, in the four- teenth century, visited the kingdom of Mansa Musa in the Mali Empire; his writings stimulated an interest in African trade.
Marco Polo: Venetian merchant who spent over 20 years traveling the Silk Road through the Mongol Empire, where he actually served on the court of its ruler, Kublai Khan; his efforts stimulated interest in trade with China.
Recovery and Renaissance in Asia and Europe
Renaissance: A period of artistic and scien- tific self-discovery and relearning of Classi- cal wisdom, particularly from the fourteenth through the sixteenth centuries; stimulated by the Crusades and soldiers’ exposure to Muslim advances in math, science, and the arts; also led to questioning of the nature of religion and natural phenomena ey Regions and Civilizations
Major civilizations during this period included the Islamic world, China under the Song and Yuan dynasties, and the Mongol Empire
Islamic world encompassed a vast region from the Iberian Peninsula in the west to the Indian subcontinent in the east
Abbasid Caliphate ruled much of the Islamic world until the Mongol conquest of Baghdad in 1258
Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt and the Delhi Sultanate in India emerged as powerful Islamic states
China experienced a golden age under the Song dynasty (960-1279) with advancements in technology, trade, and culture
Yuan dynasty (1271-1368), established by the Mongols, continued many of the Song dynasty's policies and practices
Mongol Empire, founded by Genghis Khan, became the largest contiguous land empire in history
Encompassed much of Eurasia, from China to Eastern Europe
Facilitated trade and cultural exchange through the Pax Mongolica
Other notable civilizations included the Byzantine Empire, the kingdoms of Western Europe, and the civilizations of the Americas (Maya, Aztec, and Inca)
Major Trade Networks
The Silk Roads, a network of overland trade routes connecting East Asia and the Mediterranean, flourished during this period
Facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and technologies between civilizations
Mongol Empire's control of the Silk Roads during the Pax Mongolica enhanced trade and cultural exchange
Indian Ocean trade network connected civilizations in East Africa, the Middle East, India, and Southeast Asia
Monsoon winds facilitated maritime trade across the Indian Ocean
Swahili city-states (Kilwa) and port cities (Calicut) emerged as important trade hubs
Trans-Saharan trade routes linked West Africa with the Mediterranean world
Gold, salt, and slaves were major commodities traded across the Sahara
Spread of Islam and the rise of empires (Mali) in West Africa were closely tied to trans-Saharan trade
Maritime trade in the Mediterranean and the Baltic Sea connected European kingdoms with the Islamic world and the Byzantine Empire
Italian city-states (Venice, Genoa) and the Hanseatic League dominated maritime trade in Europe
Cultural and Religious Developments
Islam continued to spread throughout Afro-Eurasia during this period
Sufi mysticism gained popularity and contributed to the spread of Islam
Syncretism between Islam and local beliefs and practices occurred in many regions (Southeast Asia)
Christianity remained a significant force in Europe and the Byzantine Empire
Roman Catholic Church held considerable political and spiritual authority in Western Europe
Eastern Orthodox Church dominated religious life in the Byzantine Empire and Eastern Europe
Buddhism, Hinduism, and Confucianism continued to shape societies in Asia
Neo-Confucianism emerged in China during the Song dynasty, emphasizing moral cultivation and social harmony
Interreligious interactions and intellectual exchanges increased, particularly along trade routes
Translation of Greek and Arabic texts into Latin in medieval Europe
Transmission of Indian mathematics and astronomy to the Islamic world
Syncretic religions and new religious movements emerged, such as Sikhism in India and the Bhakti movement
Technological and Scientific Advancements
Islamic Golden Age witnessed significant advancements in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and engineering
Development of algebra and trigonometry
Improvements in medical knowledge and the establishment of hospitals
Innovations in architecture and urban planning (round city of Baghdad)
China under the Song dynasty experienced a period of technological innovation
Invention of movable type printing, gunpowder, and the magnetic compass
Advancements in shipbuilding and navigation technologies
Diffusion of technologies and knowledge across Afro-Eurasia increased through trade networks
Spread of papermaking and printing technologies from China to the Islamic world and Europe
Transmission of Islamic medical knowledge to medieval Europe
Agricultural innovations, such as the introduction of new crops and irrigation techniques, increased food production
Champa rice from Vietnam spread to China and increased agricultural yields
Advancements in military technology, particularly gunpowder weapons, began to transform warfare
Political Structures and Empires
The Mongol Empire's conquest of much of Eurasia led to significant political changes
Establishment of the Yuan dynasty in China and the Ilkhanate in Persia
Mongol rule facilitated trade and cultural exchange but also caused widespread destruction
Islamic empires, such as the Mamluk Sultanate and the Delhi Sultanate, emerged as powerful political entities
Mamluks, a slave-soldier elite, ruled Egypt and Syria and successfully repelled Mongol invasions
Delhi Sultanate, established by Turkic and Afghan rulers, controlled much of the Indian subcontinent
Feudalism characterized political organization in medieval Europe
Decentralized political authority and the rise of the nobility
Growth of towns and cities led to increased political and economic autonomy
The Byzantine Empire, although in decline, remained a significant political and cultural force in the eastern Mediterranean
Decline accelerated after the Fourth Crusade's sack of Constantinople in 1204
Rise of regional empires and kingdoms in Africa (Mali) and the Americas (Aztec, Inca)
Social and Economic Systems
Agricultural production remained the foundation of most societies during this period
Feudal system in Europe and Japan characterized by lords, vassals, and serfs
Iqta system in the Islamic world, where rulers granted land revenue rights to military commanders
Urban growth and the expansion of trade led to the development of new social and economic classes
Merchant class and guilds in Europe and the Islamic world
Scholarly-gentry class in China, based on merit and Confucian education
Slavery and forced labor were prevalent in many societies
Trans-Saharan slave trade supplied labor to Islamic societies
Plantation slavery in the Mediterranean and the Americas
Gender roles and relations varied across civilizations
Patriarchal structures were common, but women played important roles in trade, religion, and politics in some societies (Southeast Asia)
The practice of foot binding in China reflected changing gender norms and aesthetics
Social hierarchies based on factors such as birth, wealth, and occupation shaped social interactions and opportunities
Artistic and Intellectual Achievements
Islamic art and architecture flourished, reflecting the diversity of Islamic cultures
Development of unique architectural styles (mosques, madrasas)
Calligraphy and decorative arts (carpets, ceramics) reached new heights
Gothic architecture emerged in medieval Europe, characterized by pointed arches, ribbed vaults, and large windows
Construction of grand cathedrals (Notre-Dame, Chartres) showcased the wealth and piety of European societies
Chinese art and literature thrived under the Song and Yuan dynasties
Landscape painting and poetry reflected Confucian and Daoist ideals
Porcelain production and blue-and-white ceramics became renowned exports
Intellectual developments in philosophy, theology, and science occurred across Afro-Eurasia
Scholasticism in medieval Europe, which sought to reconcile Christian theology with classical philosophy
Islamic philosophers (Averroes, Avicenna) made significant contributions to logic, metaphysics, and ethics
Neo-Confucianism in China, which synthesized Confucian, Buddhist, and Daoist ideas
Oral traditions and literature flourished in many societies (African epic of Sundiata, Icelandic sagas)
Environmental and Demographic Changes
The Medieval Warm Period (950-1250) led to improved agricultural conditions and population growth in many regions
Expansion of agriculture in Europe and Asia
Viking settlements in Iceland, Greenland, and Newfoundland
The Little Ice Age (1300-1850) brought cooler temperatures and more erratic weather patterns
Famines, crop failures, and population declines in some regions
Abandonment of Viking settlements in Greenland
The Black Death (1347-1351), a pandemic of bubonic plague, devastated populations across Afro-Eurasia
Estimated to have killed 30-60% of Europe's population
Led to significant social, economic, and religious upheavals
Mongol conquests and the expansion of trade networks facilitated the spread of diseases
Spread of the Black Death along the Silk Roads
Introduction of new diseases to the Americas by European explorers and colonizers
Urbanization and the growth of cities led to new challenges in sanitation and public health
Inadequate waste disposal and contaminated water supplies contributed to the spread of disease in urban centersAP World History: Modern - Overview of Units 1&2
The period between 1200 and 1450 was a time of growing political consolidation, technological aptitude, and socioeconomic and cultural sophistication. World population continued to rise, and regional and transregional exchanges increased in scale and frequency. Even though the world was not as interconnected as it would later become, it was moving swiftly and steadily toward interaction on a truly global scale.
4 Things to Know About AP World History: Modern Units 1&2
1. Across the globe, many centralized states and empires emerged, often taking advantage of innovative techniques of governance. Effective bureaucracies allowed them to administer diverse populations and mobilize resources over great distances. New military methods and technologies—including the invention of gunpowder—made large-scale conquest and imperial expansion easier. Cities played a larger role as hubs for political leadership, economic activity, and cultural and artistic dynamism. Increasingly organized religions, along with shared artistic and cultural traditions, fostered social cohesion and a stronger sense of identity.
2. Many regions during these years experienced a recovery from the decline or collapse of classical civilizations between the 200s c.e. and about 1000 c.e., depending on the region in question. In some places, as in Europe after the fall of Rome, a lengthy period of backwardness and decentralization followed. In others, as in China after the Han dynasty, the transition was less traumatic or lasted a shorter time. In either case, many of the states and empires that arose or matured after 1200 c.e. drew upon cultural and political legacies left by their classical predecessors.
3. Another central trend of this age was greater connectivity, thanks to the continued development of regional and interregional trade routes and networks of communication. Although the Americas remained isolated, vibrant systems of interaction linked the various civilizations of Africa and Eurasia. Trade, technological transfer, and cultural and religious diffusion all marked this era. Migration and the movement of nomadic peoples—such as the Vikings, Bantu, and Mongols—accelerated all of these processes.
4. Economically, increased productive capacity became the norm in most parts of the world. While agriculture remained the largest sector of the economy by far, the growth of trade steadily boosted the importance of commerce. Social hierarchies and labor systems adapted to these new realities, in some cases allowing for greater flexibility and mobility, but in others becoming more coercive, especially where forms of serfdom and slavery were concerned.
AP World History: Modern - Broad Trends in Units 1&2
Governance, 1200-1450
State-building during these years reached new levels of complexity and sophistication. Most forms of governance remained nonrepresentative, with monarchies and oligarchies most common.
In many cases, classical regimes—starting in the 200s c.e. and continuing through the 1000s c.e., depending on the area in question—collapsed, leading to one of several outcomes. Sometimes, new states quickly took their place, using some of the old states’ traditional sources of legitimacy (including patriarchal authority, religious backing, and the support of landowning elites) but blending them with innovative governing techniques. Examples include Byzantium and the post-Han dynasties in China. Other times, decentralization followed, giving rise to feudalism, most famously in medieval Europe and Japan. Another alternative was for dramatically new forms of governance to appear, such as the Islamic caliphates, the Mongol khanates, and the city-state systems in East Africa, Southeast Asia, the Americas, and Italy.
On a related note, one of the central questions of this era is whether civilizations at this time are better studied as nation-states (countries as formally defined political entities, in the modern sense of the word) or cultural spheres (defined less by political boundaries and more by ethnic similarities, shared traditions, or government by a larger imperial power). The answer depends on the specific region.
Europe
Feudal monarchies vs. experiments with city-state rule (Venice, Novgorod)
Papal-imperial struggle and the medieval ideal of Christendom
Mongol rule over Russia (Golden Horde)
Centralization in Byzantium (Constantinople) vs. fall to Ottoman conquest (1453)
Middle East
Abbasid Caliphate (Baghdad) peaks in 800s and fragments after 900s
Dar al-Islam and “circle of justice”
Sharia law
Mongol Il-Khanate (mid-1200s to mid-1300s)
Ottoman Empire (1299–1922) and conquest of Byzantium (1453)
Africa
Ghana (ca. 800–1200)
Mali (Timbuktu, mid-1200s–1600s; Mansa Musa in 1300s)
Hausa kingdoms
Ethiopia
Great Zimbabwe (ca. 1000–1400)
Swahili city-states
East (and Central) Asia
Song dynasty (960–1279) in China
Mandate of heaven and bureaucracy (civil service examinations)
Yuan (Mongol) dynasty in China (1271–1368)
Ming dynasty (1368–1644) in China
Chagatai (Mongol) khanate in Central Asia (1200s–mid-1600s)
Breakdown of Heian regime (794–1185) in Japan
Feudalism in Japan (shogun and samurai daimyo, 1100s–1500s)
South (and Southeast) Asia and Oceania
Post-Gupta disunity in India (ca. 600–1200)
Incursions of Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) vs. resistance of Hindu states (Vijayanagara Empire, Rajput kingdoms)
Sinhalese dynasties in Sri Lanka
Khmer Empire (800s–1400s) and Sukhothai kingdom (1200s–1400s)
Srivijayan Empire (500s–1100s) and Majapahit (1293–1500)
City-states in Southeast Asia (Malay sultanates, Melaka)
Americas
Mississippian culture (Cahokia, ca. 700–1500)
City-states in Mesoamerica (legacy of Maya, ca. 250–900, and Toltecs, ca. 800s–1100s)
Aztecs (Mexica) (Tenochtitlán, mid-1200s–1520)
Andean city-states
Chimú empire (Chan Chan, ca. 1000–1400)
Incas (Cuzco, ca. 1300s–early 1500s)
Global and Interregional
Islamic expansion into Africa and Asia (600s onward)
Crusades (Christian Europe vs. Islamic Middle East, 1096–1291)
Mongol conquests under Genghis Khan (early 1200s) and the Pax Mongolica
Cultural Developments and Interactions, 1200-1450
This era’s cultural trends were deeply affected by the global tendency toward greater interregional connectedness. Trade, migration, empire building, and cross-cultural mixing led to the diffusion of religious practices, intellectual trends, and artistic and architectural styles.
At the same time, individual regions experienced their own cultural changes and advancements. Be aware of this balance between cultural diffusion and independent innovation.
Whether they were imported from abroad or homegrown, the distinct characteristics of major cultures should be familiar to you, as should be the general developments that caused cultures to influence each other.
Europe
Latin as regional language of religious and educated elite
Papal ideal of Christendom vs. “great schism” between Roman
Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy
Scholasticism (partial reconciling of Christian doctrine with Greco-Roman thinkers like Aristotle and Plato)
Renaissance humanism (revival of Greco-Roman learning)
Universities
Code of chivalry
Intellectual impact of movable-type printing press (1430s+)
Architecture (Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals, castle building)
Middle East
Arabic as regional language of religious and educated elite (also note cultural importance of Persian)
House of Wisdom in Baghdad and golden age of Islamic culture
Madrasas as centers of learning
The Arabian Nights and the Rubaiyat (Omar Khayyám)
Sufi movement (poetry of Rumi and ’A’ishah al-Ba’uniyyah)
Geometrical design in Islamic art
Africa
Swahili as regional language in East Africa
Spread of Islamic influences via war and trade
Oral traditions (griots in West Africa)
Sundiata epic (Mali, 1300s+)
Sculpture, wood carving, weaving, metalworking
Architecture (Great Zimbabwe city complex, mud-and-timber mosques of Timbuktu)
East (and Central) Asia
Mandarin Chinese as classical language
Diffusion of Buddhist and Daoist culture (Zen/Ch’an form of Buddhism)
Impact of Neo-Confucianism
Samurai culture and code of Bushido in Japan
Architecture (pagodas, grid layout of cities, Great Wall of China, Beijing’s Forbidden City, Heian Shrine)
South (and Southeast) Asia and Oceania
Sanskrit as classical language
Indian epics
Diffusion (and mingling) of Buddhist and Hindu cultures
Bhakti movement
Islam arrives in India
Architecture (Angkor Wat, Borobudur)
Americas
Polytheism (human sacrifice and pyramid building in Mesoamerica)
Mayan hieroglyphs and calendar (concept of zero)
Quipu (in Andes cultures)
Architecture (Mississippian earth mounds, Mesoamerican pyramids, Machu Picchu, Inca Temple of the Sun)
Global and Interregional
Expansion of Islam’s cultural influence to Africa and Asia
Buddhist and Hindu influences throughout Southeast, South, and
East Asia
Greek and Indian mathematics transferred to Islamic world and Europe
Greek science and philosophy reintroduced to medieval Europe from Muslim Spain
Arab-Chinese cultural transfer
European-Islamic cultural transfer during Crusades
Cultural transfer throughout Mongol Empires
Interregional travel = Marco Polo (1200s),
Ibn Battuta (1300s), Margery Kempe (1400s), Zheng He (1400s)
Technology and Innovation, 1200-1450
The global level of technological and scientific aptitude rose during these years. Many of the same factors that encouraged cultural development—trade, the movement of peoples, cross-regional conflict and cooperation—also drove scientific and technological innovation. There was much interplay between the two spheres, and sometimes it can be difficult to distinguish between them. Certain scientific insights, for example, are better categorized as abstract ideas than as practical applications. Architecture is the product of engineering, but many buildings are significant mainly as works of art. Whether to count such things as culture or technology sometimes requires judgment, whether one is studying this era or the ones to follow.
Europe
Wheeled vehicles vs. saddles and pack animals (horses, oxen)
Shipbuilding and navigation (cogs, carracks, caravels)
Movable-type printing press (mid-1400s)
Architecture (Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals, castle building)
Middle East
Wheeled vehicles vs. saddles and pack animals (horses, oxen, camels)
Camel saddle improved
Expertise in medicine (impact of Ibn Sina’s Canon of Medicine)
Expertise in astronomy (astrolabe improved 700s+)
Expertise in mathematics (algebra, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi and trigonometry)
Shipbuilding and navigation (dhow and lateen sail)
Africa
Wheeled vehicles vs. saddles and pack animals (camels)
Shipbuilding and navigation (monsoon winds + dhow and lateen sail)
Architecture (Great Zimbabwe city complex, mud-and-timber mosques of Timbuktu)
East (and Central) Asia
Horse collar and stirrup spread out from China
Woodblock printing improved and movable-type concept invented in China
Water mills and water clocks in China
Gunpowder invented in China (800s–900s) and spread widely
Shipbuilding and navigation (junk, stern rudder, magnetic compass)
Architecture (pagodas, grid layout of cities, Great Wall of China, Beijing’s Forbidden City, Heian Shrine)
South (and Southeast) Asia and Oceania
Wheeled vehicles vs. saddles and pack animals (horses and oxen)
“Arabic” numerals, pi, and zero
Shipbuilding and navigation (monsoon winds + dhow and lateen sail)
Outrigger canoes (Polynesia)
Architecture (Angkor Wat, Borobudur)
Americas
Saddles and pack animals (llamas)
Mayan hieroglyphs and calendar (concept of zero)
Architecture (Mississippian earth mounds, Mesoamerican pyramids, Machu Picchu, Inca Temple of the Sun)
Global and Interregional
Westward transfer of many technologies from China (horse collar, compass, printing)
Influence of Greek and Indian mathematics on Islamic world and Europe
Greek science and philosophy reintroduced to Europe from Muslim Spain
Gunpowder acquired from China by Middle East and Europe (1200s)
Economic Systems, 1200-1450
A central trend during this period was greater interconnectedness among civilizations. Afro-Eurasia and the Americas remained isolated from one another, but within each of these large spaces, steadily growing networks of exchange spun strong webs of mutual influence—cultural, economic, technological, biological, and political—among varied and often distant regions. At the heart of this interaction was trade.
At the same time, economic productivity grew in most parts of the world, due typically to improved or innovative methods and technologies. The methods of intensive agriculture described elsewhere became more common. In addition, early forms of industrial production (sometimes called cottage industry or protoindustrialization) began to appear alongside traditional artisanry and craftsmanship.
Europe
Revival and growth of European trade (Hanseatic League)
Mediterranean trade network (role of Italian city-states and connections with trans-Saharan caravans and Silk Road)
Crusades stimulate appetite for Asian goods
Improved open-water navigation and Atlantic voyaging
Intensive agriculture (wheat)
Feudal manorialism (serfdom)
Guilds (artisans and craftsmen)
Middle East
Trans-Saharan caravans (Arab-Berber expertise with camels)
Mediterranean trade network (connections with Silk Road and connections with Indian Ocean basin)
Intensive agriculture (wheat)
Africa
Indian Ocean trade network (Swahili city-states)
Trans-Saharan caravans (Arab-Berber expertise with camels)
Mediterranean trade network
Salt, gold, ivory
Arab trade in enslaved Africans
East (and Central) Asia
Silk Road (briefly disrupted, then revived under Pax Mongolica and connections between Indian Ocean basin and Pacific trade)
Grand Canal in China
Intensive agriculture (rice)
Nomadic pastoralism continues in steppe zone
Silk, iron, steel, and porcelain industries in China
Feudal landholding in Japan (serfdom)
South (and Southeast) Asia and Oceania
Indian Ocean trade network
Intensive agriculture (rice)
Cotton industry in India
Spices
Americas
Intensive agriculture (potatoes, beans, corn/maize)
Chinampa, waru waru, and terracing as techniques for growing crops
Mit’a labor system in Andes (especially under Incan empire)
Pastoralism and hunting-foraging remain common in many areas
Global and Interregional
General rise in agricultural production (due to technological innovation and techniques of intensive agriculture)
New trading cities and merchant classes
Increased craft production
Luxury goods fuel expansion of trade networks
Minting of coins and printing of paper money
Standardization of currencies, weights, and measures
Credit and banking become more common
Slavery, serfdom, and corvée become more common
Social Interactions and Organizations, 1200-1450
With population growth and economic productivity rising during this era, social structures and systems of labor management grew more complicated. Social stratification remained the norm, with old hierarchies and caste systems still in place and new ones emerging. The vast majority of people lived in the countryside and earned their keep by means of agriculture or herding.
On the other hand, the increased scale of trade led to greater urbanization and sparked more class diversification and social mobility. Trade and artisanry (craftsmanship) allowed more people to work in nonagricultural occupations and gave rise to different forms of labor organization. Patriarchy and gender inequity remained common and, in some cases, worsened due to cultural or religious trends.
Europe
Serfdom (feudal manorialism) vs. free peasantry
Peasant revolts in England, France, and elsewhere (1300s)
Craftsmen and guilds
Diaspora community (Jews) and anti-Semitism
Money lending by Jewish diaspora (anti-Semitism)
Witch hunts (Hammer of Witchcraft, 1400s)
Christian doctrine and patriarchy
Middle East
Islam and patriarchy (veiling, seclusion, polygamy)
Jizya tax for subject nonbelievers (dhimmi)
Millet system (religious communities) system in Ottoman Empire
Devshirme (Ottoman slave-recruiting system)
Military slaves (mamluks and janissaries)
Diaspora community (Jews)
Africa
Patriarchy (with some matriarchy and matrilinealism)
Diaspora communities (merchants from Middle East and Indian Ocean basin)
Arab slavers in North and East Africa
Origins of Atlantic slave trade
East (and Central) Asia
Diaspora communities (merchants along Silk Road)
Neo-Confucianism and hierarchy (caste system)
Neo-Confucianism and patriarchy (foot binding)
Red Turban uprising in China (1300s)
Samurai nobility and feudalism in Japan (serfdom)
Samurai patriarchy
South (and Southeast) Asia and Oceania
Diaspora communities (minorities throughout Indian Ocean trade network)
Chinese merchant communities in Southeast Asia
Hinduism and hierarchy (varna caste system)
Hinduism and patriarchy (sati, seclusion)
Islam and patriarchy (veiling, seclusion, polygamy)
Americas
Mit’a labor system in Andes (intensifies under Inca)
Ayllu clan system in Andes
Global and Interregional
Persistence of caste systems in many regions
Growth of artisan (craftsman) classes
Growth of merchant classes
Greater urbanization and trading cities
Muslim merchant diaspora in Africa and Indian Ocean basin
Jewish diaspora (Middle East, Europe, Silk Road, Indian Ocean basin)
Slavery and serfdom become increasingly common
Patriarchy continues or deepens
Humans and Environments, 1200-1450
As before, human societies simultaneously adapted to their environment and sought to adapt it to their own needs and desires. Steady population growth made humanity’s environmental impact dramatically heavier (and sometimes harmful or self-destructive). The same is true of humanity’s increased economic productivity, which included a growing talent for engineering and construction and spurred a greater willingness to extract and deplete resources. On the other hand, environmental factors beyond human control, particularly changes in the climate and the movement of disease pathogens, affected many societies.
In keeping with this section’s central theme, much of the relationship between humans and the environment during this period was shaped by greater interregional interaction.
Europe
Environmental impact of city building and intensive agriculture (deforestation, desertification, soil erosion, silted rivers)
Cotton, sugar, and citrus spread through Mediterranean
Prevalence of disease-causing pathogens and recurring epidemics (smallpox, measles, bubonic plague)
Black Death pandemic (1300s)
Middle East
Environmental impact of city building and intensive agriculture (deforestation, desertification, soil erosion, silted rivers)
Water management systems (irrigation)
Migration of Mongol-Turkic horse pastoralists (East and Central Asia, Middle East)
Cotton, sugar, and citrus spread through Islamic world
Origins of coffee in Ethiopia and Yemen
Prevalence of disease-causing pathogens and recurring epidemics (smallpox, measles, bubonic plague)
Black Death pandemic (1300s)
Africa
Environmental impact of city building and intensive agriculture (deforestation, desertification, soil erosion, silted rivers)
Growth of Sahara and other instances of desertification
Bananas spread after arrival from Middle East
Origins of coffee in Ethiopia and Yemen
Prevalence of disease-causing pathogens and recurring epidemics (malaria, yellow fever, sleeping sickness)
East (and Central) Asia
Environmental impact of city building and intensive agriculture (deforestation, desertification, soil erosion, silted rivers)
Migration of Mongol-Turkic horse pastoralists (East and Central Asia, Middle East)
Spread of Champa rice
Prevalence of disease-causing pathogens and recurring epidemics (smallpox, measles, bubonic plague)
Black Death pandemic (1300s)
South (and Southeast) Asia and Oceania
Environmental impact of city building and intensive agriculture (deforestation, desertification, soil erosion, silted rivers)
Spread of Champa rice
Prevalence of disease-causing pathogens and recurring epidemics
Polynesian migrations end ca. 1200 (spread of pigs and taro) + deforestation of Easter Island
Americas
Environmental impact of city building and intensive agriculture (deforestation, desertification, soil erosion, silted rivers)
Chinampa agriculture and terrace farming continue
Waru waru agriculture in Andes
Comparative lack of domesticated animals vs. Afro-Eurasia
Comparative lack of disease-causing pathogens vs. Afro-Eurasia
Global and Interregional
Medieval climatic optimum and Little Ice Age begin
Continued isolation of Afro-Eurasian and American ecosystems