Chapter 7: Thinking, Intelligence, and Language

1. The Cognitive Revolution in Psychology

• Cognition: The way in which information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, and knowing.

• Cognitive psychology is a relatively young field, just over a half a century old, focusing on cognition.

Historical Background

• Early 20th century: Behaviorism dominated, with figures like B.F. Skinner claiming the mind was a “black box” unworthy of study. Behaviorism focused solely on observable behaviors, neglecting mental processes.

• Mathematician John von Neumann pioneered early computer development, linking machine processes to mental operations.

Shift in Perspectives

• In the 1950s, the advent of computer science inspired psychologists to consider internal mental processes as observable through computer models. The first modern computer demonstrated machines performing logical operations, suggesting a parallel with human thought processing.

• Cognitive psychologists often use computers as analogies for the brain:

  • Hardware: The physical brain

  • Software: Cognition

  • Input channels in sensory systems are likened to data entry in computers, where mental processes transform input into stored information, similar to data storage and retrieval in computers.

Comparisons Between Computers and the Human Mind

• Computers can outperform humans in calculations and consistently applying rules without errors.

• Computers and human brains differ significantly; computers often work with pre-coded information, while human brains handle ambiguous sensory input.

• Artificial Intelligence (AI): A growing field focusing on creating machines that perform tasks requiring human-like intelligence.

  • Examples of AI applications include successful poker-playing systems and autonomous decision-making in NASA's Mars landers.

• Cognitive Robotics: A field aiming to equip robots with intelligent behaviors akin to human functioning, involving cooperation between psychologists, neuroscientists, and engineers.

  • Challenges include the Uncanny Valley, where lifelike robots evoke discomfort among humans.

The Cognitive Revolution

• By the late 1950s, cognitive psychology emerged, focusing on understanding observable behaviors through the lens of mental processes that couldn't be directly observed. This revolution laid the groundwork for studying thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making in subsequent chapters.

2. Thinking

When you save a computer file, you might hear a sound from inside or see a processing icon, indicating that the computer is processing your work. Unlike a computer, the brain's processing is a silent operation known as thinking. Thinking involves manipulating information mentally by forming concepts, solving problems, making decisions, and reflecting critically or creatively.

Key Points

• Thinking: The process of manipulating information mentally by forming concepts, solving problems, making decisions, and reflecting critically or creatively.

Concepts

• Concepts: Mental categories used to group objects, events, and characteristics.

  • They allow us to generalize, associate experiences, aid memory, and provide clues for reactions.

  • Example: We categorize fruits, animals, and events based on shared characteristics.

  • Prototype Model: Evaluates whether items reflect a concept by comparing them with typical items in that category, searching for family resemblance.

Problem Solving

• Problem Solving: The mental process of finding an appropriate way to attain a goal when the goal is not readily available.

Steps in Problem Solving

1. Find and Frame Problems: Recognizing and defining problems creatively, which can be improved through brainstorming.

2. Develop Good Problem-Solving Strategies: Including subgoals, algorithms, and heuristics.

   • Subgoals: Intermediate goals that lead to the final solution.

   • Algorithms: Strategies that guarantee a solution but can take time.

   • Heuristics: Shortcuts for faster decision-making but do not guarantee an answer.

3. Evaluate Solutions: Assess whether the solutions work and meet defined criteria.

4. Rethink and Redefine Problems and Solutions: Embrace continuous improvement and adaptability in problem-solving strategies.

Reasoning and Decision Making

• Reasoning transforms information to reach conclusions. It can be inductive (specific to general) or deductive (general to specific).

  • Inductive Reasoning: Draws general conclusions based on specific observations.

  • Deductive Reasoning: Concludes from general principles to a specific instance.

• Decision Making: Involves evaluating alternatives and making choices based on intuition or analysis.

  • Distinguishes between Type 1 (automatic and fast) and Type 2 (controlled and slow) processes.

Biases and Heuristics

• Biases can impact decision-making negatively, for instance:

  • Loss Aversion: Preference to avoid losses rather than acquiring gains.

  • Confirmation Bias: Tendency to favor information that confirms existing beliefs.

  • Availability Heuristic: Overestimating the probability of events based on recent memories.

  • Base Rate Neglect: Ignoring statistical information in favor of anecdotal evidence.

  • Representativeness Heuristic: Making judgments based on stereotypes rather than statistical data.

Critical Thinking and Creativity

• Critical Thinking: Evaluating evidence and questioning assumptions to make decisions logically.

  • Requires mindfulness and open-mindedness.

• Creative Thinking: Involves divergent (many solutions) and convergent (single best solution) thinking.

  • Characteristics include flexibility, internal motivation, risk-taking, and objective evaluation of work.

Through understanding these processes, individuals can improve their problem-solving and decision-making skills, leading to more effective outcomes in both daily and complex situations.

3. Intelligence

Defining Intelligence

• General Definition: Intelligence is often defined in the United States as the all-purpose ability to perform well on cognitive tasks, solve problems, and learn from experience.

• Cultural Variations:

  • In Uganda, an intelligent person is someone who knows what to do and takes appropriate action.

  • For the Iatmul people of Papua New Guinea, intelligence includes the ability to remember the names of numerous clans (10,000 to 20,000 names).

  • Residents of the Caroline Islands define intelligence as the ability to navigate by the stars.

  • Some languages, like Mandarin Chinese, lack a single term for intelligence as understood in Western cultures; there are words for specific skills, such as wisdom, rather than an overarching concept of being smart.

• Historical Context: Charles Spearman introduced the idea of a general intelligence (g), suggesting its presence across various cognitive tasks. Many contemporary researchers endorse this view.

• Sternberg's Perspective: Robert Sternberg proposes that intelligence should be viewed as the capacity to succeed in diverse contexts, emphasizing the role of cultural values in defining intelligence.

  • Note: This leads to a circular definition equating intelligence with success, potentially obscuring the abilities of capable individuals who may not achieve traditional success due to societal constraints.

• Eugenics and Its Impact: The history of intelligence theory includes troubling eugenics beliefs, asserting that intelligence is genetically determined and justifying practices of selective reproduction. This has led to offensive ideologies and significant historical injustices, including the sterilization of individuals labeled as mentally deficient.

Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence

• Role of Genes: There is a consensus that genes play a significant role in intelligence, with heritability estimating how much of the differences in a group's intelligence is attributable to genetic differences.

• Definition of Heritability: Heritability is the proportion of observable differences in a group that can be explained by genetic differences among members (Plomin, 2018).

  • Twin studies show the heritability of intelligence to be about 50%, though estimates may vary across studies (Pesta & others, 2020; Trzaskowski & others, 2014).

• Context of Heritability: Heritability indicates population-level trends rather than individual intelligence. High heritability in one group does not mean a fixed amount of intelligence derived from genetics for a single individual.

• Environmental Impact:

  • Group environments significantly influence intelligence; supportive settings can enhance genetic predispositions, while variable environments may diminish them.

  • Intelligence is polygenic, involving a myriad of genetic traits without clear single-gene influences (Plomin & von Stumm, 2018; Davies & others, 2011).

• Effect of Childhood Environment: Childhood experiences and interventions can positively impact IQ, as evidenced by:

  • Dietary Supplements: Omega-3 fatty acids can lead to an increase in IQ.

  • Educational Interventions: Early education improves IQ, especially in disadvantaged children.

  • Interactive Reading: Encouraging engagement during reading can raise IQ scores significantly.

  • Preschool: Attendance can lead to higher IQ scores in young children, especially among those from lower socioeconomic statuses.

• Flynn Effect: The rising IQ test scores across generations show that environmental changes—reflecting educational demands and cognitive challenges—contribute to intelligence development.

• Group Differences in IQ: There are mean IQ score differences between various groups, which has led to controversies regarding genetic versus environmental explanations.

  • Race is not a reliable genetic indicator, and many disparities in IQ scores can be attributed to socioeconomic factors, significantly reducing perceived gaps when environmental contexts are examined (Weiss & Saklofske, 2020).

• Conclusion: Overall, intelligence is shaped by both genetic and environmental factors, underscoring the importance of opportunities and experiences in enhancing cognitive abilities.

Extremes of Intelligence

• Intelligence Factors: Intelligence emerges from a combination of genetic heritage and environmental factors. IQ test scores generally conform to a bell-shaped normal curve.

• Giftedness: Individuals who are gifted possess high intelligence (IQ of 130 or higher) and/or superior talent in a specific area. Gifted individuals often show exceptional abilities, but may not excel in all domains. Research is increasingly focused on domain-specific developmental trajectories (Kell & Lubinski, 2014; Sternberg & Bridges, 2014; Thagard, 2014).

• Case Study - Joey Cheek: Olympic speed-skating gold medalist Joey Cheek exemplifies giftedness through his athletic accomplishments and academic pursuits, including studies in economics and Chinese at Princeton University.

• Lewis Terman's Research: Terman studied 1,500 children with an average IQ of 150. Contrary to popular belief, his participants, known as "Termites", were socially well-adjusted and went on to become successful professionals. Gifted children may not always become major innovators, as many become experts in established fields.

• Contemporary Giftedness: Research indicates that profoundly gifted individuals may achieve remarkable success in adulthood, often pursuing advanced degrees and excelling in creative fields (Lubinski et al., 2006).

• Nature vs. Nurture: Giftedness results from both heredity and environment. While gifts may manifest early, strong family support and deliberate practice are crucial for success (Bloom, 1985; Grigorenko et al., 2009).

• Challenges in Education: Meeting the needs of gifted students requires appropriate challenges. Some students may need advanced classes to thrive, exemplified by figures like Bill Gates and Yo-Yo Ma.

• Social Perception & Stereotyping: Recognition of giftedness may be influenced by social perceptions and stereotypes, leading to underrepresentation of certain groups (e.g., Black Americans and Latinx individuals) in gifted programs.

• Intellectual Disability: Conversely, individuals with low IQs may still navigate life effectively. Intellectual disability is defined more by functional impairment in adapting to daily challenges than by a specific IQ score.

• Organic vs. Cultural-Familial Intellectual Disability: Organic intellectual disability arises from genetic disorders or brain damage. Cultural-familial intellectual disability occurs where environmental factors lead to lower cognitive ability.

• Assessment of Abilities: The American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities emphasizes assessing adaptive behaviors in various domains (conceptual, social, practical) rather than solely focusing on IQ.

• Multiple Intelligences: Theories by Sternberg and Gardner suggest intelligence should recognize various forms beyond traditional measures. Sternberg’s triarchic theory outlines analytical, creative, and practical intelligence, whereas Gardner identifies nine distinct types of intelligence. Controversy exists regarding the empirical support for these theories and their practical implications.

4. Language

• Definition: Language is a form of communication, whether spoken, written, or signed, that is based on a system of symbols. It is essential for interacting with others, listening, reading, and writing, and also plays a role in self-talk, such as the internal dialogue during guilt or reflection.

Social Media Language & Political Views

• A study explored the language of over 25,000 Twitter users to understand if word choice reveals political views. Results showed differences in word usage:

  • Liberals: More likely to use benevolence-related words (e.g., "improve," "care").

  • Conservatives: Used more negative emotion words and terms related to power and tradition.

  • Extreme Partisans: Expressed more certainty in their views compared to moderates. This study indicates that political partisans may communicate in distinct linguistic styles in online contexts.

Basic Properties of Language

• Infinite Generativity: The ability to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences.

• Phonology: The sound system of a language, including basic sounds (phonemes) and rules governing sound sequences.

• Morphology: Rules for word formation; morphemes are the smallest units of language that carry meaning (e.g., "help" and "helper").

• Syntax: Rules for combining words into acceptable phrases and sentences (e.g., the difference between "John kissed Emily" and "You didn’t stay, didn’t you?").

• Semantics: The meaning of words and sentences, encompassing unique semantic features associated with words.

• Pragmatics: The useful aspects of language that communicate more than what is explicitly stated (e.g., asking for a bus while using minimal language).

Language and Cognition

• Language is vital for expressing thoughts and is intertwined with developmental processes in children and adolescents. Language is seen as a tool for thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making.

• Whorf's Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis: Proposes that language shapes thought. For instance, the Inuit people's extensive vocabulary for snow may allow them to perceive it differently compared to English speakers who have fewer terms for it. Critics suggest that language reflects thought rather than determines it.

Bilingualism and Cognitive Benefits

• There is a debate whether bilinguals have cognitive advantages. Research yields mixed results; however, being bilingual enables communication with diverse groups, which holds cognitive value in itself.

Cognition’s Influence on Language

• Language uses a cognitive foundation, enabling communication about absent objects. Studies suggest infants demonstrate early communication capabilities indicative of cognitive awareness. Examples include pointing to where a toy was located.

• Research demonstrates a connection between language ability and general intellectual ability, though disorders like Williams syndrome and dyslexia reveal exceptions to typical patterns in language functionality.

Biological and Environmental Influences on Language

• Overview: The understanding of language acquisition revolves around whether it is the product of biological predisposition or learned through environmental experiences.

Biological Influences

• Evolutionary Development: Scientists believe that humans acquired language about 100,000 years ago, and evolutionary changes occurred long before this to shape humans into beings capable of language (Chomsky, 1975).

• Anatomical Changes: Evolution led to alterations in the brain, nervous system, and vocal apparatus that allowed for the development of complex speech (Putt, 2020). This advancement provided a significant survival advantage for Homo sapiens (Pinker, 1994).

• Language Universals: Noam Chomsky proposed that humans are biologically prewired to learn language in specific ways and at certain times. Children reach language milestones universally, suggesting an innate grammatical framework regardless of varying language input. Even infants in non-verbal environments develop language skills over time.

• Language and the Brain: Neuroscience research supports that specific brain regions are predisposed to language use. Key centers include Broca's area (speech production) and Wernicke's area (language comprehension). Notably, by around 9 months, infants begin attaching meaning to words, indicating early language processing abilities (Bauer, 2013).

Environmental Influences

• Behaviorist Perspective: Historically, behaviorists argued that language is learned through reinforcement (Skinner, 1957). However, this view has been challenged due to the rapidity of language learning in children and the lack of structured reinforcement in many environments.

• Evidence from Cases: Children lacking exposure to language rarely develop typical language skills. Chelsea’s case, where a deaf woman learned language at age 32, highlights the critical period in language learning; she could not acquire a sense of grammar after years of silence despite normal cognitive abilities.

• Role of Caregivers: Children are significantly aided in language acquisition by their interactions with caregivers. Studies show infants exposed to more parental conversations develop better language skills (Abney & others, 2020).

• Socioeconomic Status: Economic background affects language development. Children from poorer families often have limited exposure to language, resulting in noticeable deficits in vocabulary and grammar (Hart & Risley, 1995; Risley & Hart, 2006). The “30 million word gap” illustrates this disparity.

Language Development over the Life Span

• Childhood Milestones: Most individuals develop a clear understanding of language structure during childhood, typically acquiring a vocabulary of about 50,000 words by adulthood. Early exposure to language is crucial for mastering phonology, morphology, and semantics.

• Babbling: Babies begin babbling around 4 to 6 months, which is a natural biological readiness, indicating an ability to articulate sounds regardless of reinforcement or listening abilities.

• Critical Period: The idea of a critical period suggests that language development must occur in a specific early life phase for typical mastery. Chelsea’s case exemplifies this concept, as neural and cognitive frameworks must develop during this time.

• Lifelong Learning: While language acquisition is robust in childhood, adults can still learn new languages. However, challenges arise due to previous language patterns and age-related changes in cognition concerning phonetic distinctions (Neville, 2006). Learning a new language requires discernment of previously ignored sounds, and adults can develop listening skills to adapt to new languages (Evans & Iverson, 2007).