Midterm Topics

Postcolonial (“Poco”) Theory

·       Key Theorist: Edward Said

o   Background: Palestinian-American academic, literary critic, and political activist

o   Major Work: Orientalism (1978)

§  Examines constructed false cultural representations in western-eastern relations

§  Proposes the existence of a subtle and persistent Eurocentric prejudice against Eastern cultures

§  Traces tradition of false, romanticized images of Asia and the Middle East in Western cultures

§  Argues that these representations justify colonialism

§  Criticizes internalization of these images leading to intra-cultural divisions

·       Concept of “the Exotic Other”

o   Definition: Represents individuals perceived as exotic, alien, distant, romanticized, antique, fantastic, sensual, foreign, and inscrutable

Setting and History of Sudan

• Pre-colonization:

  • Diverse and resource-rich land

  • Tribal control by local communities

• Colonial Period:

  • Foreign rule by Egypt and later home rule under Christian and Muslim governments

  • Unified administration under the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium (1899-1956)

    • British held primary political and military power

    • Division into:

      • North: Predominantly Muslim, Arabic-speaking

      • South: Multi-religious, ethnic, and linguistic communities

    • Control of education:

      • North: British managed education

      • South: Left to Christian missionaries

• Independence:

  • Achieved in 1956, establishing the Republic of Sudan

• Civil Wars:

  • First Sudanese Civil War (1955-1972)

  • Second Sudanese Civil War (1983-2005)

  • South Sudan’s Independence (2011)

  • Third Sudanese Civil War (2023-present)

• Historical Illustration:

  • An 1897 lithograph depicting the Mahdist War (1881-1899)

Tayeb Salih

• Tayeb Salih (1929–2009):

  • Often regarded as “the genius of the Arabic novel” by leading Arab critics (1976)

  • Noted for his works as a writer, novelist, journalist, and UNESCO staff member

  • His novel Season of Migration to the North (SMN) recognized as “the most important Arab novel of the 20th century” (2001)

  • Initial serialization in a Lebanese magazine in 1966, published as a book in 1967

  • Collaborated closely with translator Denys Johnson-Davies

    • Renowned for his work between Arabic and English, acknowledged by Edward Said

  • Salih emphasized the significance of writing in Arabic as a matter of principle, in contrast to using English, the colonial language

Postcolonial Theory

• Frantz Fanon:

  • Martinican psychiatrist and political philosopher recognized for his anticolonial perspectives

  • Key Works:

    • The Wretched of the Earth (1961)

    • Black Skin, White Masks (1952)

  • Autoethnography:

    • Blends personal experiences with historical critique of colonial impact on identity

  • Examination of violence:

    • Colonial violence against colonized cultures and peoples

    • Anti-colonial violence as a response to reclaim dignity

  • Impact of colonialism on the psyche of both Black and White individuals

  • Concept of the “white mask” – adopting a façade to assimilate into white society

  • Inquiry into how SMN integrates these postcolonial theories and themes

Postcolonial Theory Continued

Key Theorist: Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak

• An influential Indian scholar, literary theorist, and feminist critic.

• Notable Work: "Can the Subaltern Speak?" (1988)

Subaltern Definition

• Subaltern refers to colonial subjects who are socially, politically, and geographically excluded from power hierarchies.

• Subaltern peoples are often displaced, denied agency and citizenship.

Gender and Representation

• Women, according to Spivak, are often the most marginalized in colonial contexts.

• Engages with the politics of representation: focuses on who can represent whom and the challenges thereof.

• Emphasizes the importance of engaging with marginalized voices without speaking for them.

Voice and Power Structures

• It's challenging for subaltern women to participate in public discourse due to existing power structures.

• Notable Quotes:

  • "Clearly, if you are poor, black, and female you get it in three ways."

  • "White men are saving brown women from brown men."

  • "The subaltern cannot speak."

Rwanda

Some Background I

• Historical Context:

  • Hutus settled in the Great Lakes region (500 BC to 1000 BC).

  • Hutus: Agricultural society; Tutsis: Nomadic origins from Ethiopia (400 years ago).

  • Economic dominance of Tutsis over Hutus; historical rulership dynamics.

  • Complex economic and social interactions; not all Tutsis wealthy, nor Hutus poor.

  • Source: PBS

Some Background II

• Ethnic Identity:

  • Congolese historian George Izangola on Tutsi and Hutu's shared ethnic roots.

  • The influence of proximity to royalty on social status.

  • Belgian colonial rule enforced ethnic divisions through identity cards and educational disparities.

  • Consequences of colonial policies on Hutu and Tutsi relations.

  • Source: PBS

Postcolonial Theory Continued

• Homi Bhabha

  • Key Concepts:

    • Hybridity: Process of cultural mixing that creates new identities; challenges the notion of stable cultures.

    • Mimicry: Imitation of colonizers that critiques the power dynamics; highlights contestation of power through cultural exchange.

    • Ambivalence: The inherent uncertainty in cultural mixing; reflects the complex relationship between colonizers and the colonized.

Postcolonial Theory Insights

• Frantz Fanon:

  • Renowned Martinican psychiatrist and political philosopher.

  • Important works:

    • "Black Skin, White Masks" (1952)

    • "The Wretched of the Earth" (1961)

  • Advocated violence for colonized peoples to achieve independence.

  • Argued non-human treatment by colonizers frees colonized from common humanity's principles.

  • Resistance dynamics:

    • Military strength of colonizers necessitates violent resistance.

  • A warning for decolonized Algeria facing neo-colonial global challenges.

 Setting and History

• Igboland: Area inhabited by the Igbo people, linked by language and cultural norms.

• 1861: British begin exerting control over Igboland.

• 1884-85: Berlin Conference grants official control to British powers.

• Scramble for Africa: Rapid colonization of African territories by European nations.

• 1914: Nearly all African nations under colonial rule, with only Ethiopia and Liberia remaining independent.

• 1950s-70s: Decolonization period; most African countries gain independence.

• 1960: Nigeria attains independence from British rule.

Contexts of "Things Fall Apart"

• Setting: The novel is set in the 1890s but was published in the 1950s.

• Dual Contexts: Important to consider how historical and cultural contexts influence the reading experience.

• Language Choice: Although Achebe is fluent in Igbo, he chose to write in English.

  • Achebe views English as a "gift," facilitating global reach.

  • Contrast with Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o who opposes writing in the colonizer's language, asserting identity in native tongues.

• Achieving Mastery: Discusses Achebe's transformation of English into a "new English" that reflects African identity.

Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o on Language and Power

• Colonization and Language: Colonizers impose their language as a tool of domination.

• Demonization of Native Languages: Native African languages viewed as inferior, suitable only for basic communication.

• Language as Power: English is portrayed as language of intellect and prestige, while African languages are marginalized.

The Post-colonial or Imperial Gaze

• Definition of Gaze: Refers to how groups observe and categorize others.

• E. Ann Kaplan: Introduced the concept of the "imperial gaze" in 1997—focus on the observer's values.

• Central Narratives: Similarities with Edward Said's idea of "orientalism" in the context of the post-colonial gaze.

• Exploring Perspectives: The need to critically assess how we consume African arts and narratives in alignment with or against the imperial gaze.

Timeline(s) for Thinking About African Literature

Periods of Literature

·       Precolonial: ~2000 BCE – 1415 CE

·       Colonial: 1415 – 2002 CE

o   Height of colonialism largely during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with significant powers such as Britain, France, and Portugal establishing control over vast territories in Africa.

·       Height: 1870 – 1914 CE

·       Postcolonial: 1956/7 CE* – Present

o   Marked by the independence movements across Africa leading to the decolonization of nations.

Subcategories of Periods

·       Ancient: ~2000 BCE – 700 CE

·       Medieval: 700 – 1500 CE

·       Early Modern: 1500 – 1800 CE

o   This period saw significant European exploration and early attempts at colonization, especially by the Portuguese and Spanish.

·       Modern: 1800 – 1950s CE

o   Characterized by intensified colonization and the birth of modern African literature amidst colonial rule.

·       Contemporary: 1950s CE – Today

o   Features a resurgence of African voices and narratives reflecting on postcolonial identity and challenges.

Influences and Languages

·       Oral Literatures: Indigenous storytelling traditions that were the primary means of cultural expression before colonization.

·       European Contact: Introduction of colonialism led to profound changes in societal structures and cultural expressions.

·       Islamic Arab Influence and Christian European Influence: Both played significant roles in shaping African literature and societal norms.

·       Languages: Hieroglyphics, Greek, Latin, Arabic, Berber, Ge'ez, and Coptic were foundational languages, with colonization introducing European languages that dominated literary production.

·       First English Novel: 1911, showcasing the integration of English literary forms into African contexts.

·       Language Debates: Ongoing discussions about the impact of both colonized and colonizers' languages in publishing and writing, reflecting issues of identity and cultural integrity.

Terminology (from the Oxford English Dictionary)Definitions

·       Colony: A human settlement or territory controlled by a foreign power, often leading to the imposition of new cultural norms and governments.

·       Colonization: Process of establishing a colony in a place, usually by foreign states for appropriation and control of the area, resulting in significant cultural exchanges but also conflicts.

·       Colonialism: Acquiring political control over another country, often involving occupation by settlers. Also refers to the cultural superiority mindset of colonialists, which justified oppression and exploitation.

·       Colonial: Of, relating to, or characteristic of colonialism, often negatively reflecting oppression and exploitation, as colonial powers asserted dominance.

Theoretical Responses: The “Afterlives” of Colonialism

Similarities of Terms

·       Anti-colonial, Postcolonial, Decolonial: All terms oppose colonialism in language and practice, sharing a spirit of resistance and defiance against colonial domination.

·       They relate closely to themes of liberation, activism, and coalition-building among formerly colonized communities.

Differences of Terms

Definitions and Implications

·       Anti-colonial: Direct opposition to colonial rule, includes historical and ongoing resistance; often associated with revolutionary movements aimed at ending colonial powers.

·       Postcolonial: Mostly used in literary studies; acknowledges a historical colonization phase but stresses ongoing effects and the need to address lingering colonial legacies.

·       Decolonial: Critiques colonial thinking and knowledge production; seeks to separate Eurocentrism from understanding cultures, representing a radical, continuous opposition to the remaining influences of colonial thought.