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Unit 4: Transoceanic Interconnections 1450-1750
🗺 Causes of European Exploration
🧪 Adoption and innovation of maritime technologies
Came from Classical Greek, Islamic, and Asian worlds
Magnetic compass: came from China
Astrolabe: came from Ancient Greece and Arab world
Helped sailors know their latitude
Lateen sail: came from Arab merchants
Enabled them to take wind on both sides (not just from behind)
These techs helped give Europeans the ability to navigate the seas and ascend in the world stage
Europeans also made their own innovations in shipbuilding
Ex: Portuguese Caravel - small, able to navigate shallow coast and rivers, fast, with cannons
Helped Portuguese take over the Indian Ocean trade
Europeans also improved their knowledge of regional wind patterns in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans
👑 Growth of state power
Absolutism - a political system in which a single ruler holds complete authority and control over the state, often justified by divine right
Not hierarchical unlike feudalism
lead to the centralization of power and influence in European monarchies during this period
Causes of the growth of state power:
States had more wealth from trade routes to pay bureaucrats and have a large scale army/navy
Consolidated power from the nobility/aristocracy (who lost power) and centralized power for the state
Monarchs had a more significant role in economic decisions such as inter-regional trade
Europeans (especially upper classes) demanded spices from India
However, the land based empires from Unit 3 like the Ottomans were still here and controlled a lot of the major trade routes and can jack up the price
This gave an incentive to European Monarchs to seek a different route such as a sea based route to Asia so they can trade on their own terms
🤑 Economic
Mercantilism - a state driven economic system that characterized imperial European states during this period; caused major rivalries between European powers
Argued the World’s wealth was limited and was defined in gold and silver
This economic system sparked major rivalries between European states where they fought to get the most wealth for themselves
States wanted a Favorable Balance of Trade - when states organize their economies around exports and avoid imports
Keeps gold and silver coming in
This system gave Empires a strong incentive to expand through overseas colonies
When colonies are developed, there is a closed market for exports with the imperial country, meaning colonies exist only to enrich their imperial empires
Joint-stock company - A limited liability business, often chartered by the state and funded by private investors
Investors could only lose what they invested; liability was limited
States and merchants rely on each other
states rely on merchants to expand their influence
merchants rely on states to give them monopolies on certain regions of trade
Joint-stock companies made this relationship work well
States who used this kind of company (Britain, France, and the Dutch) increased in power while states who stuck with state-sponsored exploration such as Portugal and Spain started to decrease in power
Ex: Dutch East India Company (VOC)
Chartered by the Dutch state in 1602
established a monopoly on the Indian Ocean
expanded Dutch influence
made investors very rich
This Indian Ocean trade method made powerful rivalries between European states, causing them to attack each other’s trading ports and ships
⛵ Establishing Maritime Empires
🇵🇹 Portugal
Prince Henry the Navigator - brought people together to find a way to sail down the Atlantic Coast of Africa towards the Indian Ocean
Established a Trading Post Empire along the coast of Africa and the Indian Ocean
NOT colonies!
Colonies are expensive, Portugal just set up bare bones trading posts
Portugal never really established a monopoly in the Indian Ocean Trade due to fierce competition from other European states
🇪🇸 Spain
Spain sent Christopher Columbus to find another route to the Indian Ocean
He found America instead, causing Spain to establish colonies and the Atlantic Trade Network
Spain also set up a colony in the Philippines for the Indian Ocean Trade Network
Used Tribute Collecting and Coerced Labor to maintain control there (like they used in the Americas)
🇫🇷 France
Sponsored westward expeditions to find another route to Asia
Established colonies in Canada, giving access to the lucrative Fur Trade with natives
Holdings were small and mainly focused on trade
🇬🇧 England
Queen Elizabeth I defeated Spain’s attempts to invade England, weakening Spain
She commissioned Sir Walter Raleigh to establish a colony in Roanoke Island called Virginia
The British also established colonies in Jamestown
The British also wanted to expand their influence in the Indian Ocean by setting up trading posts
Later turned into full colonial rule over India as the British Naval Force became very powerful
🇳🇱 The Dutch
Recently gained independence from Spain
Sent ships to Challenge Spanish and Portuguese control over the Indian ocean
The Dutch VOC (Dutch East India Company) came out on top
Had a monopoly on the spice trade
Also set up a few colonies in the Americas such as New Amsterdam
🌽 The Columbian Exchange
Columbian Exchange - The transfer of new diseases, food, plants, and animals between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres
Refers to environmental phenomena, don’t get confused with Triangular Trade
Disease
Europeans spread diseases such as smallpox, measles, and malaria to the Native Americans, devastating their populations
“The Great Dying“
Food and plants
Europeans brought grapes, olives, wheat, bananas, sugar, and rice while they brought back potatoes and maize
Having a diet with a larger variety helps to increase population, especially seen in the Eastern Hemisphere
Cash Cropping - method of agriculture focused on growing a crop mainly for export
Ex: Sugar cane in the Caribbean grown with the help of enslaved African workers
Then exported to European and Middle East markets
Animals
Europeans introduced pigs, sheep, cattle, and horses to the Americas
Horses helped Natives with hunting and farming
✊ Resistance to Imperial Expansion
Asians states along the Indian Ocean resisted intrusion of Western Powers
Ex: Tokugawa Japan
When Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch met Japan the shogun was originally open to it until they started converting Japanese people to Christianity
The Shogun (Tokugawa) feared Christianity would cause Japan to become less centralized (like it was in the past)
The Shogun then condemned the Christian Missionaries, isolating Japan from European influence and only maintained trade with the Dutch
National Seclusion Policy
European powers had resistance at the local level too
Ex: Fronde in France (1648)
Absolutism consolidated all power to the monarch
Edicts that increased taxation to fund exploration
Nobles who were losing power along with peasants rebelled but ended up crushed
Ex: Russian Cossacks
Cossacks were able to resist the Tsar’s absolutism and state centralization
Maintained their local autonomy in choosing their own leaders
Enslaved people resisted as well
Ex: Maroon societies
In European colonies in America, enslaved Africans would work on plantations but there were also runaway forming Maroon Societies
Colonial troops want to destroy these societies
In Jamaica, Queen Nanny led a Maroon society rebellion and fought back
Colonial troops couldn’t win so they signed a treaty recognizing the independence of this community of imperial resistance
🔃 Change and Continuity
🐫 Networks of Exchange
Indian Ocean Trade Network
European states entered this network and gained power (change)
European entrance helped to increase profits for both themselves and those who already were using this network
Middle Eastern, South Asian, East Asian states continue to use this trade network (continuity)
Established merchants like the Gujaratis continued to make use of this network (continuity)
Increased the power of the Mughal Empire
Because of them, the Portuguese never got complete dominance over this network
Silk Roads
Land based routes such as the Silk Roads were still controlled by Asian land-based powers such as the Ming, Qing, and Ottomans (continuity)
Demand for food and consumer goods increased because of increasing trade, continuing peasant and artisan labor
Atlantic System
Opened as a result of European exploration (change)
Made Europeans insanely rich and powerful
Sugarcane was grown a lot to export to Europe
Silver was mined in the Americas and shipped back to Europe
Used to purchase Chinese goods
Those goods were then traded in the Atlantic system which made all those who participated even richer
Used coerced labor (slaves) as the bulk of the labor force in the Americas
The changes that occurred were maintained by the global flow of silver and trade monopolies granted by states to joint-stock companies
🔨 Labor Systems
In the Americas, economies established by Europeans were mainly based on farming and mining
They made use of existing labor systems along with introducing new ones
Ex: Mit’a system (continuity)
Developed by the Inca Empire and required subjects to labor on state projects for a certain number of days per year
Used for the good of everybody
Spanish used this as well for silver mining operations to force indigenous people to work there
Used to enrich the Spanish
New Labor Systems (change):
Chattel slavery - slavery where the purchaser has full control of the enslaved person
Race based and hereditary
Slavery was identified by skin color in America
Provided justification for brutality of slavery there as they were seen as less than human
Main economic engine of imperial empires in America was tedious mining and agriculture, so Europeans bought Male slaves 2:1
Size of Trans-Atlantic slave trade was greater than Indian Ocean and Mediterranean counterparts
In contrast, the African slave trade has been going on for a very long time before this, and wasn’t based on race and the slaves usually assimilated into the culture
Indentured servitude
Laborer would sign contract that bound them to work for a period of time (~7 years)
Found in British colonies where low class British signed indentures to finance their journey across the sea
Encomienda system
Used by Spanish to divide indigenous Americas among Spanish settlers
Native Americans forced to provide labor for Spanish in exchange for food and protection (kinda like feudalism)
Had nothing to do with land ownership and everything to do with controlling the indigenous population
Hacienda
Indigenous laborers forced to work in large fields called Haciendas
Centered on land ownership to control the indigenous population
🌱 Effects of Maritime Expansion
Expansion of African States
The expansion of Maritime Trading Networks also benefited some African states who participated in them
This connected them with the global economic linkages of the networks even if the networks were more European centered
Ex: Asante Empire in West Africa
Provided Europeans gold, ivory, and slaves
Made the Asante very rich, allowing them to expand their military and empire
Ex: Kingdom of the Kongo in Southern Africa
Made diplomatic ties with Portugal
Provided gold, copper, and slaves
King of the Congo converted to Christianity in order to facilitate trade with European powers
Expanded the Kingdom of the Congo’s wealth and power
Social effects of African slave trade
Gender imbalance (Especially in West Africa states)
Men were sold more than Women as European powers wanted men as the work in plantations and mines was very tedious
Change in family structure
Rise of polygyny - Men marrying more than 1 woman
Cultural synthesis
Growing emergence of creole languages (mixed languages) in the Caribbean and Brazil
Synthesized European and African languages and sometimes indigenous
🛐 Effects: Changing Belief systems
Contact between new and old worlds changed belief systems on occasion
Ex: Christianity
One of the main motivations of Spain and Portugal was to spread Christianity
Both states sent missionaries (mostly Jesuits) to their colonies to convert indigenous populations to Christianity
Provided justification for the conquest of Americas
In some cases, indigenous populations outwardly adopted Christianity but privately continued to practice their own beliefs
The Effect: religious syncretism that resulted in blending Christian beliefs and practices with indigenous beliefs and practices
African religions participated in this syncretism too for example Vodun which blended African Animist beliefs with Christian practices and doctrines in the Americas
Effects: Changing Social hierarchies
Ethnic and Religious Diversity
Spain and Portugal expelled Jewish people from their lands just like they did to the Muslims so Christianity could be dominant
Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II opened his lands to the expelled Jews
The Ottomans were quite tolerant of Jewish people and some of them rose to positions on the Ottoman court
Rise of new political elites
Casta system - a new social hierarchy imposed by the Spanish on their American colonies which organized colonial society into ranks based on race and ancestry (how much Spanish blood someone had)
Before this system, natives had a wide variety of linguistic and cultural groups
After this system, this cultural complexity was erased and their society was ordered by a minority of Spanish elite
Transition from the Ming to Qing Dynasty
Qing dynasty reserved high positions on the bureaucracy to ethnically Manchu people
Struggles of Existing Elites
Elites had started to lose power to absolutist monarchs
Ex: Russian boyars - the aristocratic land owning class in Russia
Always had significant power in administration of the empire
Russian czar Peter the Great took power from boyars, abolishing their position and required those on the bureaucracy to serve the state directly
📒 Topics (Treat like FRQs)
Explain how cross-cultural interactions resulted in the diffusion of technology and facilitated changes in patterns of trade and travel from 1450 to 1750. | Cross-cultural interactions resulted in the diffusion of technologies such as the magnetic compass from China, the astrolabe from the Arab World, and the lateen sail from Arab merchants. These technologies were then adopted by European explorers to assist in navigation in the open seas, facilitating exploration and trade. |
Describe the role of states in the expansion of maritime exploration from 1450 to 1750. | States sponsored maritime exploration such as Spain sponsoring the voyages of Christopher Columbus. States also gave joint-stock companies such as the Dutch East India Company (VOC) monopolies on their foreign markets which enriched those merchants while also expanding the influence of the state. States also had incentives to explore more and find a different route to Asia to access the Indian Ocean and Silk Road networks due to the Ottoman Empire jacking up prices. |
Explain the economic causes and effects of maritime exploration by the various European states. | The causes of maritime exploration by various European states is the fact that the Ottoman Empire controlled a lot of territory in major trade routes such as the Silk Road, and the Indian Ocean Network. The Ottomans then jacked up prices for luxury resources traded on those routes which incentivised European powers to find a different route to Asia and explore. There were also new technologies adopted that facilitated exploration and navigation by ship. States also grew in power and sponsored exploration. The effects of maritime exploration include establishing a whole new major trade route called the Atlantic system. It also enriched European powers and ascended them to be dominant in the World Stage. |
Explain the causes of the Columbian Exchange and its effects on the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. | The Colombian exchange was caused by European explorers such as Christopher Columbus establishing contact with the Western Hemisphere and Eastern Hemisphere. The effects on the Eastern and Western Hemispheres include the exchange of resources such as food, animals, and diseases. A more varied diet coming from corn and potatoes brought back from the Western Hemisphere caused greater population growth in the Eastern Hemisphere while new diseases brought to the Western Hemisphere caused many people to die and major population decline in the Western Hemisphere. |
Explain the process of state building and expansion among various empires and states in the period from 1450 to 1750. | The Portuguese use fast boats with powerful cannons to expand their influence into other places such as the Indian Ocean network and Japan. States also consolidate more power from aristocrats. The Portuguese also established a trading post empire to expand their influence. Other European powers such as France, Spain, and Britain start to develop colonies in the Americas which enriched and expanded their own empires. The Spanish used tribute systems and coerced labor to maintain their control there. |
Explain the continuities and changes in economic systems and labor systems from 1450 to 1750. | Economic systems of trade changed due to the rise of Mercantilism which propelled European states to create powerful rivalries between each other to gain more wealth. European states also entered into the Indian Ocean trade and established monopolies to enrich their respective joint-stock companies and created the Atlantic System of trade which also symbolizes change. Furthermore, there was a rise of new labor systems such as Chattel slavery which was based on race and the purchaser had full rights to the purchased slave. Continuity in economic systems includes Asian merchants continuing to use the Indian Ocean network and the Silk Road and enriching themselves such as the Mughal Empire. Continuity in labor systems includes the use of the Mit’a system by the Spanish. It was originally used by the Inca to construct state projects but the Spanish used it to force natives to work for the Spanish and enrich the Spanish. |
Explain changes and continuities in systems of slavery in the period from 1450 to 1750. | Changes to systems of slavery in this period include the introduction of new Labor systems such as Chattel Slavery. This is where the purchaser had full control of the purchased slave and was also based on race. The Spanish also employed systems to control the indigenous population in America such as the Encomienda System and Haciendas where they forced the Indigenous population to work for the Spanish in exchange for food and protection. Continuities in systems of slavery include the continuation of the Mit’a system originally used by the Incas to construct state projects by forcing people to work a certain number of days per year. The Spanish used this system to enrich themselves by forcing Natives to work in silver mines. |
Explain how rulers employed economic strategies to consolidate and maintain power throughout the period from 1450 to 1750. | Rulers used Mercantilism to enrich their empire through acquiring gold and silver to consolidate more wealth and power for themselves by maintaining a favorable balance of trade. They founded colonies which formed a closed market between the colonies and their imperial empire “parents“ which only served to enrich the imperial empire which consolidated more power. Rulers also used joint-stock companies to expand their influence by establishing monopolies in trade routes such as the Indian Ocean. |
Explain the continuities and changes in networks of exchange from 1450 to 1750. | The continuities in networks of exchange include Asian and Middle Eastern states continuing to use the Indian Ocean and Silk Road trade networks and enriching themselves. For example, the Gujaratis were established merchants on the Indian Ocean and continued to increase the power of the Mughal empire. On the other hand, changes in networks of exchange include the entrance of European powers into the Indian Ocean trade network. For example, the Dutch East India Company had a monopoly on the spice trade which enriched the Dutch and expanded their influence. Furthermore, a new network of exchange was created through the exploration of Europeans called the Atlantic system which made the Europeans very rich and powerful. |
Explain how political, economic, and cultural factors affected society from 1450 to 1750. | Political factors such as the Manchu people ruling the Qing Dynasty had a negative effect on the society mostly made up of ethnically Han Chinese. The Manchu kept the civil service exam however reserved the top positions only for ethnically Manchu people. Furthermore, they made all Han Chinese men get an embarrassing haircut. This all caused a political divide between the Manchu rulers and the Han Chinese majority. Economic factors such as colonization of the Americas and trade negatively affected the society of Natives there as the Casta System kept Natives at the bottom of the social hierarchy. This also got rid of the wide variety of linguistic and cultural groups among the Natives and basically group them all together. Cultural factors such as religion caused many Jews to be kicked out of Spain and Portugal as the Spanish and Portuguese wanted religious unity under Christianity. |
Explain the similarities and differences in how various belief systems affected societies from 1450 to 1750. | Belief systems such as Christianity provided justification for the conquest of the Americas for the Spanish as one of their main goals was to spread Christianity by sending missionaries. The Portuguese did the same. Indigenous populations also practiced their own beliefs along with having an outward appearance of adhering to Christianity. The result of this is the blending of belief systems. |
Explain the effects of the development of state power from 1450 to 1750. | State power increased as an effect of the decline of feudalism and the decline of power of local lords and elites. The development of centralized state power lead to monarchs having a more significant role in economic decisions and trade. Monarchs in Europe began to demand spices from Southeast Asia, while the Ottomans controlled much of the major trade routes. This prompted European monarchs to send explorers out to find another route to Asia. Furthermore, the increased state power allowed for the administration and establishment of large maritime empires. States established monopolies which helped their respective joint-stock companies, enriching both the state and the merchants. |
Explain how social categories, roles, and practices have been maintained or have changed over time. | Social categories changed over time as Russian aristocrats (boyars) lost power to the centralized monarchs such as Peter the Great. The centralized empires would gain much more power which would fuel further expansion and exploration through economic decisions. Social practices in Africa changed as the African Slave trade gave rise to polygyny where one man would marry multiple women due to the imbalance of demographics caused by the Slave trade preferring men to be sold due to the hard labor in the European colonies in America. |
Explain how economic developments from 1450 to 1750 affected social structures over time. | Economic developments such as new labor systems led to social structures being altered. For example, the Casta system was a social hierarchy imposed by the Spanish on the indigenous population where the Spanish people were on top. Furthermore, the rise of state power led to existing elites losing power. For example, Russian boyars always had significant impact on the administration on the empire. However, Peter the Great stripped that power away and made bureaucrats serve the state directly. |
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