3. Forgetting and Remembering (2)
Page 1: Introduction
Forgetting and Remembering
Course: Psychology ATAR
Instructor: Mrs Surty
Page 2: Unit Overview
Key Topics:
Memory: Understanding the processes of forgetting and remembering.
Forgetting:
Types of forgetting
Retrieval failure
Interference (proactive and retroactive)
Motivated forgetting
Decay theory
Remembering:
Roles of recall (free, serial, cued), recognition, and relearning in memory
Levels of processing model (Craik and Lockhart, 1972)
Shallow (structural, phonemic) vs Deep (semantic, elaborative) processing
Study Reference: Depth of processing and retention of words (Craik and Tulving, 1975)
Rehearsal: Techniques to improve memory (maintenance rehearsal, elaborative rehearsal)
Ebbinghaus's Forgetting Curve (1885): Role of repetition in memory retention.
Page 3: Forgetting Defined
Forgetting:
Failure to retrieve stored information.
Page 4: Retrieval Failure
Defined as the
Inability to retrieve specific information.
Retrieval Failure Theory:
Failure due to lack of retrieval cues or ineffective use of them.
Retrieval Cues: Mental prompts created to aid recollection.
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon (TOT):
Feeling that a known fact is momentarily inaccessible.
Could involve interference theory: Noted when available information is blocked by interference from similar data.
Example: Difficulty recalling dinner on a specific past date.
Page 5: Interference as a Form of Forgetting
Interference:
Difficulty recalling due to competition with similar information.
Proactive Interference:
Old information inhibits learning new information.
Example: Incorrectly using an old password.
Retroactive Interference:
New information inhibits retrieval of old information.
Example: Forgetting past class names after learning new ones.
Page 6: Proactive vs. Retroactive Interference
Proactive Interference:
Old learning disrupts the encoding of new material (e.g. learning Italian verbs affecting Spanish verbs).
Retroactive Interference:
New learning affects retrieval of old information (e.g. learning new Spanish verbs hinders recall of old Italian verbs).
Page 7: Evidence for Interference
Study 1:
Participants who slept after learning 80 nonsense words showed better recall than those who continued with daily activities.
Page 8: Motivated Forgetting
Defined as
Inability to remember certain information due to potential advantages of forgetting.
Common with painful or traumatic memories.
Types of motivated forgetting:
Repression: Unconsciously blocking unwanted memories.
Suppression: Consciously ignoring painful memories.
Page 9: Decay Theory
States that memory fades over time.
Most apparent in sensory and working memory.
Some psychologists believe that memories do not decay but simply remain unrecalled until triggered.
Limitations:
Fails to explain occasions when forgotten memories are recalled later.
Some elderly individuals recall distant events but forget recent ones.
Page 10: Anterograde Amnesia
Defined as the loss of ability to form new memories following amnesia onset.
Causes: disease, accidents, brain surgery, drug use.
Notably occurs after consuming large amounts of alcohol (blackouts).
Example: HM's case of not forming lasting new memories post-surgery.
Page 12: Retrograde Amnesia
Defined as memory disruption of events prior to the amnesic event.
Causes: brain injuries (e.g. collisions).
Example: HM's inability to recall events before surgery; Krickitt Carpenter's loss of wedding memories.
Page 15: Types of Remembering
Recall: Retrieving information from memory independently (no cues).
Recognition: Identifying correct information from alternatives.
Relearning: Learning previously learned information again, typically faster than the first time.
Page 16: Recall Types
Free Recall: Responding with as much information as possible in any order, without cues.
Serial Recall: Recalling in the order presented.
Cued Recall: Assisted recall using cues.
Page 18: Recognition
Involves identifying previously learned information among alternatives.
Recognition improved by prompts or cues, especially for visual stimuli.
Affected individuals with amnesia can recognize learned words but fail to recall them.
Page 19: Context Cues
Additional information related to the circumstances during encoding.
Example: Learning in a quiet environment aids recall in similar exam settings.
Page 20: State Cues
Information regarding emotional or physiological states at the time of encoding can trigger memories.
Example: Specific emotional states may evoke past similar feelings.
Page 21: Distractors
Recognition can be compromised by distractors, particularly similar options in multiple-choice formats.
Misleading distractors can lead to false positives in recognition.
Page 22: Recall vs. Recognition
Recognition generally seen as superior due to retrieval cues.
Faster and easier than recall due to survival advantages programmed in the brain.
Can process recognition subconsciously.
Page 23: Relearning
Learning previously memorized material again and measuring retention.
Faster relearning indicates some retained information despite perceived forgetfulness.
Retention improves after the first learning experience.
Page 27: Levels of Processing Model (Craik and Lockhart, 1972)
Memory understood as a continuum based on ease of retrieval.
Involves making associations between new and previous knowledge.
Deep processing enhances retrieval chances.
More effective learning results from meaningful engagement with material rather than mere repetition.
Page 28: Types of Encoding and Processing
Shallow Processing: Understanding physical features/appearance (structural), and sounds (phonemic).
Deep Processing: Understanding meaning (semantic) facilitating better recall.
Increased recall percentages correlate with processing depth (20% shallow, 50% moderate, 80% semantic).
Page 29: Depth of Processing Study (Craik and Tulving, 1975)
Aim, method, findings, and contributions to psychology; evaluated critiques and limitations.
Page 30: Levels of Processing Model Insights
Not structured like traditional multi-store models, emphasizing processing as key.
Deeper processing is linked to stronger memory traces.
Page 38: Improving Short-Term Memory
Chunking: Grouping information to enhance retention (e.g., mobile numbers).
Rehearsal: Techniques for prolonging memory retention.
Maintenance Rehearsal: Repetition for short-term retention.
Elaborative Rehearsal: Linking new information with existing knowledge; enhancing meaningful associations.
Mnemonics: Strategies that aid memorization (e.g. Atkinson and Shiffrin model).
Page 39: Types of Memory Rehearsal
Elaborative Rehearsal: Supports long-term retention through context and meaningful associations.
Maintenance Rehearsal: Focuses on short-term retention through repetition without deeper meaning.
Page 42: Role of Repetition in Memory
Significant for retaining information over time.
Ebbinghaus' Forgetting Curve: Rapid initial forgetting followed by gradual decline.
Emphasizes the importance of consistent practice in delaying forgetting.
Page 43: Key Role of Repetition
Maintains and refreshes memory across both short-term and long-term memory.
Strengthens neural pathways for easier recall.
Spacing Effect: Spaced repetition proves more beneficial than massed repetition for long-term retention.
Page 44: Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve Case Study
Pioneered systematic research on memory retention.
Studied types of nonsense syllables for measuring recall over time; results exhibited rapid forgetting post-learning.
Findings maintain consistent patterns across various forms of memory retention.
Majority forgetting occurs soon after initial learning, underpinning the significance of effective rehearsal methods.