3. Forgetting and Remembering (2)

Page 1: Introduction

• Forgetting and Remembering

• Course: Psychology ATAR

• Instructor: Mrs Surty

Page 2: Unit Overview

• Key Topics:

  • Memory: Understanding the processes of forgetting and remembering.

  • Forgetting:

    • Types of forgetting

    • Retrieval failure

    • Interference (proactive and retroactive)

    • Motivated forgetting

    • Decay theory

  • Remembering:

    • Roles of recall (free, serial, cued), recognition, and relearning in memory

    • Levels of processing model (Craik and Lockhart, 1972)

    • Shallow (structural, phonemic) vs Deep (semantic, elaborative) processing

  • Study Reference: Depth of processing and retention of words (Craik and Tulving, 1975)

  • Rehearsal: Techniques to improve memory (maintenance rehearsal, elaborative rehearsal)

  • Ebbinghaus's Forgetting Curve (1885): Role of repetition in memory retention.

Page 3: Forgetting Defined

• Forgetting:

  • Failure to retrieve stored information.

Page 4: Retrieval Failure

• Defined as the

  • Inability to retrieve specific information.

  • Retrieval Failure Theory:

    • Failure due to lack of retrieval cues or ineffective use of them.

    • Retrieval Cues: Mental prompts created to aid recollection.

  • Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon (TOT):

    • Feeling that a known fact is momentarily inaccessible.

  • Could involve interference theory: Noted when available information is blocked by interference from similar data.

  • Example: Difficulty recalling dinner on a specific past date.

Page 5: Interference as a Form of Forgetting

• Interference:

  • Difficulty recalling due to competition with similar information.

  • Proactive Interference:

    • Old information inhibits learning new information.

    • Example: Incorrectly using an old password.

  • Retroactive Interference:

    • New information inhibits retrieval of old information.

    • Example: Forgetting past class names after learning new ones.

Page 6: Proactive vs. Retroactive Interference

• Proactive Interference:

  • Old learning disrupts the encoding of new material (e.g. learning Italian verbs affecting Spanish verbs).

• Retroactive Interference:

  • New learning affects retrieval of old information (e.g. learning new Spanish verbs hinders recall of old Italian verbs).

Page 7: Evidence for Interference

• Study 1:

  • Participants who slept after learning 80 nonsense words showed better recall than those who continued with daily activities.

Page 8: Motivated Forgetting

• Defined as

  • Inability to remember certain information due to potential advantages of forgetting.

  • Common with painful or traumatic memories.

  • Types of motivated forgetting:

    • Repression: Unconsciously blocking unwanted memories.

    • Suppression: Consciously ignoring painful memories.

Page 9: Decay Theory

• States that memory fades over time.

  • Most apparent in sensory and working memory.

  • Some psychologists believe that memories do not decay but simply remain unrecalled until triggered.

  • Limitations:

    • Fails to explain occasions when forgotten memories are recalled later.

    • Some elderly individuals recall distant events but forget recent ones.

Page 10: Anterograde Amnesia

• Defined as the loss of ability to form new memories following amnesia onset.

  • Causes: disease, accidents, brain surgery, drug use.

  • Notably occurs after consuming large amounts of alcohol (blackouts).

  • Example: HM's case of not forming lasting new memories post-surgery.

Page 12: Retrograde Amnesia

• Defined as memory disruption of events prior to the amnesic event.

  • Causes: brain injuries (e.g. collisions).

  • Example: HM's inability to recall events before surgery; Krickitt Carpenter's loss of wedding memories.

Page 15: Types of Remembering

• Recall: Retrieving information from memory independently (no cues).

• Recognition: Identifying correct information from alternatives.

• Relearning: Learning previously learned information again, typically faster than the first time.

Page 16: Recall Types

• Free Recall: Responding with as much information as possible in any order, without cues.

• Serial Recall: Recalling in the order presented.

• Cued Recall: Assisted recall using cues.

Page 18: Recognition

• Involves identifying previously learned information among alternatives.

  • Recognition improved by prompts or cues, especially for visual stimuli.

  • Affected individuals with amnesia can recognize learned words but fail to recall them.

Page 19: Context Cues

• Additional information related to the circumstances during encoding.

  • Example: Learning in a quiet environment aids recall in similar exam settings.

Page 20: State Cues

• Information regarding emotional or physiological states at the time of encoding can trigger memories.

  • Example: Specific emotional states may evoke past similar feelings.

Page 21: Distractors

• Recognition can be compromised by distractors, particularly similar options in multiple-choice formats.

  • Misleading distractors can lead to false positives in recognition.

Page 22: Recall vs. Recognition

• Recognition generally seen as superior due to retrieval cues.

  • Faster and easier than recall due to survival advantages programmed in the brain.

  • Can process recognition subconsciously.

Page 23: Relearning

• Learning previously memorized material again and measuring retention.

  • Faster relearning indicates some retained information despite perceived forgetfulness.

  • Retention improves after the first learning experience.

Page 27: Levels of Processing Model (Craik and Lockhart, 1972)

• Memory understood as a continuum based on ease of retrieval.

  • Involves making associations between new and previous knowledge.

  • Deep processing enhances retrieval chances.

  • More effective learning results from meaningful engagement with material rather than mere repetition.

Page 28: Types of Encoding and Processing

• Shallow Processing: Understanding physical features/appearance (structural), and sounds (phonemic).

• Deep Processing: Understanding meaning (semantic) facilitating better recall.

  • Increased recall percentages correlate with processing depth (20% shallow, 50% moderate, 80% semantic).

Page 29: Depth of Processing Study (Craik and Tulving, 1975)

• Aim, method, findings, and contributions to psychology; evaluated critiques and limitations.

Page 30: Levels of Processing Model Insights

• Not structured like traditional multi-store models, emphasizing processing as key.

  • Deeper processing is linked to stronger memory traces.

Page 38: Improving Short-Term Memory

• Chunking: Grouping information to enhance retention (e.g., mobile numbers).

• Rehearsal: Techniques for prolonging memory retention.

  • Maintenance Rehearsal: Repetition for short-term retention.

  • Elaborative Rehearsal: Linking new information with existing knowledge; enhancing meaningful associations.

  • Mnemonics: Strategies that aid memorization (e.g. Atkinson and Shiffrin model).

Page 39: Types of Memory Rehearsal

• Elaborative Rehearsal: Supports long-term retention through context and meaningful associations.

• Maintenance Rehearsal: Focuses on short-term retention through repetition without deeper meaning.

Page 42: Role of Repetition in Memory

• Significant for retaining information over time.

  • Ebbinghaus' Forgetting Curve: Rapid initial forgetting followed by gradual decline.

  • Emphasizes the importance of consistent practice in delaying forgetting.

Page 43: Key Role of Repetition

• Maintains and refreshes memory across both short-term and long-term memory.

• Strengthens neural pathways for easier recall.

• Spacing Effect: Spaced repetition proves more beneficial than massed repetition for long-term retention.

Page 44: Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve Case Study

• Pioneered systematic research on memory retention.

• Studied types of nonsense syllables for measuring recall over time; results exhibited rapid forgetting post-learning.

  • Findings maintain consistent patterns across various forms of memory retention.

  • Majority forgetting occurs soon after initial learning, underpinning the significance of effective rehearsal methods.