The presidency review

The Presidency:

Be able to discuss in detail divided government and its impact on the presidency. 

Divided government occurs when one party controls the presidency while the opposing party controls one or both chambers of Congress. This situation often leads to legislative gridlock, as the president may struggle to pass major policy initiatives without bipartisan support. It increases the use of executive actions (such as executive orders) and heightens partisan conflict, making judicial appointments and budget negotiations more contentious. Notable examples include the Obama administration facing a Republican-controlled Congress after 2010 and the Trump administration encountering Democratic opposition in the House after 2018.

Be able to discuss in detail the idea of unified government and why it is somewhat of a myth.

A unified government is when the same party controls the presidency and both chambers of Congress. While it suggests easier passage of legislation, it is somewhat of a myth because intra-party divisions often arise, preventing a truly unified agenda. For example, despite Republican control of Congress in 2017, President Trump faced difficulties repealing the Affordable Care Act due to dissent within the party. Additionally, the Senate filibuster requires a 60-vote majority for most legislation, meaning opposition parties still wield power.

Be able to discuss in detail the evolution of the presidency and its change over time.

The presidency has evolved significantly since the Founding. Initially, the role was more limited, with Congress being the dominant branch (as seen in the early years under Washington and Adams). However, over time, presidents expanded executive power:

19th Century: Andrew Jackson increased presidential power by vetoing legislation based on policy disagreements, not just constitutionality.

20th Century: Theodore Roosevelt introduced the "stewardship theory," using executive power proactively, while Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal greatly expanded federal government involvement in the economy.

Modern Era: The presidency has become a media-driven and policy-making institution, with greater reliance on unilateral actions (e.g., executive orders and agreements).

Be able to discuss in detail the Electoral College and its role in the selection of the president.

• Winner Take All System (except Maine and Nebraska)

• How does the Electoral College affect popular sovereignty?

• How does the Electoral College affect voter efficacy?

The Electoral College is the system by which the U.S. elects its president. Each state is allocated electors based on its congressional representation (Senators + Representatives). Most states use a winner-take-all system, meaning the candidate with the most votes in a state wins all its electors, except in Maine and Nebraska, which use a district-based method.

• Winner-Take-All System: This method reinforces the two-party system, as third-party candidates struggle to gain electoral votes.

• Impact on Popular Sovereignty: The Electoral College can lead to a president winning the office without winning the popular vote, as seen in 2000 and 2016, which some argue undermines popular sovereignty.

• Impact on Voter Efficacy: Voters in battleground states feel their votes carry more weight, while those in solidly red or blue states may feel their votes are less impactful, reducing voter efficacy.

Be able to discuss in detail the following powers of the President: Executive Orders,Executive Agreements, Signing Statements

Executive Orders: Directives issued by the president that have the force of law without congressional approval (e.g., FDR’s internment order, Biden’s COVID-19 response).

Executive Agreements: International agreements made by the president without Senate ratification, often used in foreign policy (e.g., Paris Climate Accord).

Signing Statements: Comments made by the president upon signing a bill, sometimes indicating how the law will be enforced or interpreted, sparking constitutional concerns.

Be able to discuss in detail the 22nd Amendment and its effect on the office of the President.

Ratified in 1951, the 22nd Amendment limits the president to two terms. This restricts long-term executive power, prevents indefinite rule (as seen in FDR’s four terms), and reinforces the democratic transition of power. However, it also weakens a second-term president’s influence, as they become a "lame duck" with limited political leverage.

Be able to discuss in detail the president’s ability to communicate as it relates to Bully Pulpit State of the Union

Bully Pulpit: The president's ability to use media and public speeches to influence public opinion and pressure Congress (e.g., Reagan’s televised speeches).

State of the Union: An annual address outlining the administration's policy agenda, used to rally public and congressional support.

Be able to discuss in detail the three audiences of the president and how the president uses the power of persuasion to influence them.

Presidents must use persuasion to influence: Washington D.C. (Political Elites): Gaining support from Congress, bureaucrats, and party leaders.Party Activists and Officials: Maintaining party unity and energizing the base.The Public: Shaping public opinion through speeches, media appearances, and social media.

Be able to discuss in detail the significance of the veto, and differences between a standard veto and a pocket veto.

Standard Veto: The president rejects a bill, which can only be overridden by a two-thirds majority in both houses.

Pocket Veto: If Congress adjourns within 10 days of sending a bill to the president and the president takes no action, the bill dies.

Be able to discuss in detail how the president uses the bully pulpit, executive orders and signing statements as tools to help them govern.

Bully Pulpit: Used to shape public opinion and put pressure on lawmakers.

Executive Orders: Bypass Congress to enact policy changes.

Signing Statements: Allow the president to influence law enforcement and interpretation.

Be able to discuss in detail how the lame duck period for a president significantly limits their influence as president.

A lame duck president (one serving the final months of their term) has reduced influence, as Congress and political allies shift focus to the incoming administration. This limits the president's ability to pass legislation, make appointments, or influence policy.

Be able to discuss in detail the popularity of the president and what causes that to change over time.

Presidential approval ratings are influenced by:

Economic Conditions: Strong economies boost approval, recessions lower it.

Foreign Policy Crises: Military successes increase approval (e.g., Bush post-9/11), while failures lower it.

Scandals: Watergate and impeachment proceedings harm approval ratings.

Be able to discuss in detail what causes congressional approval and presidential approval to not be as tied together as in the past.

In the past, presidential approval often influenced congressional approval, but factors such as increased partisanship, local vs. national concerns, and divided government have weakened this correlation. Congressional approval is often lower due to gridlock and lack of direct accountability compared to the singular focus on the president.

Be able to discuss in detail the purpose of a signing statement and the controversy surrounding the president’s use of those statements.

Presidents use signing statements to clarify how they will enforce laws, sometimes challenging congressional intent. Critics argue this undermines the separation of powers by allowing the executive branch to alter legislation without formal vetoes.

Be able to discuss in detail how powerful the president is and what contributes to more or less power being in the chief executive’s hands.

Expansion Factors: National crises, media influence, executive orders, and foreign conflicts (e.g., War Powers post-9/11).

Constraints: Congress, Supreme Court rulings (e.g., U.S. v. Nixon limiting executive privilege), and public opinion.

Be able to discuss in detail the main ideas outlined Federalist No. 70

Authored by Alexander Hamilton, Federalist No. 70 argues for a strong, energetic executive to ensure accountability, defend against foreign threats, and enforce laws efficiently. A single executive, rather than a council, allows for decisive action and prevents gridlock.

Required Documents to Know:

• Federalist 70