Thomas M. Disch: Advocates for a Darwinian approach to understanding human history.
Christopher Ehret: Praises Jared Diamond's engaging exploration of history, prompting re-evaluation of societal roles and geographical placement.
Bruce D. Smith: Highlights the integration of diverse academic fields to explain the varied developmental paths of human societies over the past 13,000 years.
Luca Cavalli-Sforza: Critiques traditional racist answers regarding societal divergence, promoting Diamond's multi-disciplinary explanations.
Development of societies was influenced by the availability of resources such as metal deposits.
Eurasia's advancement included established empires, while Polynesia developed minimally due to limited resources:
Polynesia lacked significant metal deposits (except New Zealand).
Writing emerged in Mesoamerica but not in Polynesia outside rare instances like Easter Island.
Societal evolution is contingent upon environmental factors; Polynesia serves as a limited example.
Colonization of the New World by Europeans initiated significant population shifts and the often devastating impact on Native American groups.
The New World’s initial colonization occurred over 11,000 years ago, mainly through the Bering Strait.
The isolation of societies in the Americas led to unique developments without external influence.
Meeting between Inca emperor Atahuallpa and Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro.
Pizarro’s group consisted of only 168 soldiers versus Atahuallpa’s unarmed 80,000.
Pizarro captured Atahuallpa swiftly, holding him for ransom with significant gold payment but later executed him after receiving the ransom.
Pizarro's actions demonstrated the advantages of European weapons and military strategy.
Spaniards utilized steel weapons, horses, and guns that provided a decisive edge in battle.
Psychological effects of European technology overwhelmed Native American forces during encounters.
Example confrontation: Battle at Cajamarca saw 168 Spaniards defeat and kill thousands of Incas without suffering casualties.
Epidemics like smallpox weakened indigenous populations, significantly aiding Spanish conquests.
The unpreparedness of Native Americans against European diseases contributed to their decline (estimated 95% population loss).
Comparison of disease impact on different regions illustrates broader themes of colonization and resistance.
Pizarro's actions were facilitated by:
European maritime technology that enabled cross-continental movements.
Centralized political organizations in European states supporting expeditions.
Presence of written language aiding communication and strategic planning.
Atahuallpa's ignorance of Spanish military capability led to his downfall.
Miscommunication and lack of immediate information about Spaniards affected his response.
Historical pattern: Other leaders like Montezuma experienced similar miscalculations regarding European intentions and capabilities.
Pizarro's success highlights the interplay of immediate factors:
Military technology (guns, steel, horses).
Diseases reducing Native American numbers.
The central question remains as to why Europeans possessed these advantages over the Incas, a topic to be further explored in subsequent chapters.