Chapter 5: Socialization

Psychological Perspectives on Self-Development

Sigmund Freud

• Biography: Influential psychoanalyst (1856–1939) known for his theories on self-development.

• Stages of Development: Divided maturation into distinct stages, linking self-development closely to completion of these stages.

• Consequences of Failure: Believed that failure to effectively engage with or disengage from a specific stage results in long-lasting emotional and psychological issues in adulthood.

Erik Erikson

• Biography: Psychologist (1902–1994) who expanded upon Freud's theories regarding personality development.

• Lifespan Theory: Proposed eight stages of development from birth to death, suggesting personality is always evolving and never static.

• Social Aspects: Highlighted the significance of societal influences and social acceptance in the negotiation of self-development, contrasting Freud's emphasis on basic human drives and psychosexual stages (Erikson 1982).

Jean Piaget

• Biography: Renowned psychologist (1896–1980) known for his work on child development focused on social interactions.

• Self Development: Suggested that self-concept is shaped through a negotiation process between our internal perceptions and external social environments (Piaget 1954).

Harry Harlow

• Research Contributions: Psychologist known for experimental studies on rhesus monkeys (1905–1981) examining the effects of isolation and maternal deprivation on development.

• Isolation Effects: Found that monkeys subjected to isolation showed severe emotional disturbances and difficulty reintegrating socially.

• Surrogate Mother Studies: Monkeys preferred cloth-covered surrogates, indicating that emotional support and attachment were crucial for healthy development, influencing modern psychological and sociological understanding of human development.

Sociological Research

Sociology vs. Psychology

• Core Differences:

  • Psychologists focus on intrapersonal factors affecting behavior, such as cognitive processes and mental health.

  • Sociologists examine how societal structures and cultural norms shape individual behavior.

• Historical Context: Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) clarified the distinction by linking suicide rates to social factors rather than solely psychological aspects (Durkheim 1897).

• Research Examples: Sociologists might analyze dating norms, while psychologists focus on individual awareness of sexual desire.

• Collaboration and Division: Over time, the fields have diverged, with sociologists focusing on large-scale societal patterns and psychologists emphasizing individual mental processes.

Sociological Theories of Self-Development

Charles Cooley

• Looking Glass Self: Introduced the concept that self-identity is significantly shaped by how others perceive us (Cooley 1902).

George Herbert Mead

• Self Development: Investigated how self-identity emerges through socialization and interaction with others (1863–1931).

• Developmental Stages:

  • Preparatory Stage: Children imitate actions without understanding perspectives.

  • Play Stage: Children adopt roles from significant others, experimenting with social behaviors (e.g., dress-up, roleplaying).

  • Game Stage: Children learn to navigate multiple roles and understand societal interactions through responsibilities (e.g., restaurant dynamics).

  • Generalized Other: Recognizes societal norms and expectations, forming a cohesive self-identity (Mead 1934; Mead 1964).

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

• Moral Development Overview: Processes through which individuals learn societal definitions of right and wrong, crucial for maintaining social order.

• Stages of Morality:

  • Preconventional: Children learn through sensory experiences without moral reasoning.

  • Conventional: Teens become aware of social norms and responsibilities in moral judgments.

  • Postconventional: Individuals think abstractly about morality, recognizing conflicts between legality and morality (Kohlberg 1981), exemplified by social movements that challenge unjust laws.

Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Development and Gender

• Critique of Kohlberg: Carol Gilligan (1936–) highlighted potential gender biases in Kohlberg's research, which primarily involved male subjects.

• Moral Perspectives: Suggested that boys may focus on justice (rules/laws), while girls emphasize care and responsibility (relational perspectives).

• Research Limitations: Despite her insights, Gilligan's findings were criticized for small sample sizes and questioned for replicability. Emphasized that observed behavioral differences stemmed from gender socialization, not inherent moral development differences (Gilligan 1982; Gilligan 1990).

Sociology in the Real World

Gender Socialization Example

• Societal Expectations: Lisa Bloom discusses societal comments that reinforce the importance of appearance for young girls, leading to body image concerns among very young children (Bloom 2011).

• Schooling Initiative: Egalia preschool in Sweden promotes gender-neutral development, intentionally avoiding reinforcement of traditional gender roles.

• Practical Strategies for Change: Bloom recommends focusing on engaging children's minds rather than their appearances, such as asking young girls about their favorite books instead of complimenting their looks (Bloom 2011).

Importance of Socialization

• Socialization as a Foundation for Society

  • Critical for individual identity and societal continuity.

  • Society perpetuates itself by teaching its culture to new members.

  • A society ceases to exist if new generations do not learn its way of life.

  • Example: U.S. cultural values related to democracy are transmitted through practices like voting.

    • Children learn voting norms by observing parents or participating in school elections.

    • Other cultural practices include dining etiquette and sports rituals.

Cultural Learning in Society

• Mechanisms of Socialization

  • Social interaction provides a framework for individuals to understand themselves and their society.

  • Essential to learn both material and nonmaterial culture:

    • Material culture: how to dress, what to eat, and how to prepare meals.

    • Nonmaterial culture: norms and values influencing behavior and social function.

  • Language acquisition is vital for communication and cognitive development; facilitates thought and expression.

  • Without socialization, individuals lack a coherent self-concept.

The Nature vs. Nurture Debate

• Nature Argument

  • Claims that genetics predominantly shape who we are—our temperaments and talents are predetermined.

• Nurture Argument

  • Emphasizes the impact of socialization and relationships in shaping individuals.

• Research Insights

  • Studies of identical twins raised apart provide rare insights into the influence of nature versus nurture.

    • Example: Twin girls adopted in 1968 exhibited similarities in behavior later discovered during their reunion at age 35.

  • Sociological considerations must include social class, race, gender, and other contextual factors affecting lives beyond genetic makeup.

Real-World Example: Chris Langan

• Background

  • Chris Langan: Extremely high IQ, experienced a life of poverty and instability.

  • Faced barriers due to lack of social skills integral for higher educational achievement.

• Parenting Influence

  • Lower-income families focus on independence, while higher-income families promote skill development and advocacy.

    • Middle-class children encouraged to confront systems (e.g., school administration).

  • Chris’s high intelligence contrasted with his lack of social capital leads to missed opportunities.

• Conclusion

  • Suggests that even gifted individuals face challenges when socialization skills are inadequate.

  • Educational success often requires not just intellect, but also practical intelligence which he lacked.

Sociological Perspectives on Socialization

• Structural Functionalism

  • Seen as essential for maintaining societal stability and cultural continuity.

  • Socialization helps train individuals to function well within society and secures cultural transmission.

• Conflict Theory

  • Socialization reproduces societal inequalities by imparting different norms based on gender, class, and race.

    • Example: Variances in socialization can create unequal opportunities, as illustrated by Chris Langan’s experience.

• Interactionism

  • Focused on face-to-face interactions and the significance of symbolic communication in socialization processes.

    • Example: Gender roles are socially reinforced through color-coded clothing for infants (blue for boys, pink for girls).

Social Group Agents

Overview

• Social groups provide the first experiences of socialization.

• Families and peer groups communicate expectations and reinforce norms.

• Socialization introduces individuals to the tangible objects of material culture, as well as societal beliefs and values.

Family

• Definition: Family is the first agent of socialization.

  • Roles: Mothers, fathers, siblings, and extended family teach children essential knowledge, including:

    • Using objects (clothes, books, tools).

    • Relating to others (family, friends, teachers).

    • Understanding reality and imagination.

• Influencing Factors: Families do not socialize in isolation; various factors influence parenting styles:

  • Historical Context: Attitudes towards discipline have changed (e.g., physical punishment viewed as acceptable in the past is now often seen as abusive).

  • Race and Class: Poor families often emphasize obedience and conformity; wealthier families encourage creativity and judgment.

    • Example (National Opinion Research Center 2008): Working-class parents raise children for compliance due to job structures, while wealthy parents cultivate skills for leadership roles (Kohn 1977).

• Cultural Examples: In Sweden, paternity leave for fathers is normalized, allowing for more gender-neutral parenting.

  • Policy Insight: With government support encouraging equal parental leave, nearly 90% of Swedish fathers take time off for childcare, challenging traditional gender norms (Associated Press 2011).

Peer Groups

• Definition: Peer groups consist of individuals with similar age, social status, and interests.

• Role in Socialization:

  • Begin teaching social norms in early childhood (e.g., sharing, taking turns).

  • Serve as a crucial influence during adolescence, fostering independence and identity apart from family.

  • Provide unique social interactions that differ from family settings.

  • Studies show that while friendships are vital, parental influence remains significant in adolescents’ development.

Institutional Agents

School

• Significance: Schools play a critical role in socialization, where most U.S. children spend about 7 hours a day.

• Functions:

  • Teach academic subjects (math, reading) and instill social behaviors (teamwork, adherence to schedules).

  • Contribute to a hidden curriculum that enforces societal expectations, competition, and cooperation (Bowles and Gintis 1976).

• Example of Socialization at School:

  • Children engage in competitive scenarios (e.g., sports, contests) and collaborative projects that foster a sense of teamwork and societal roles.

• Citizenship and National Pride: Schools also teach children about governance by requiring activities like saying the Pledge of Allegiance and learning U.S. history, preparing them to understand their civic roles.

  • Textbooks are updated to reflect more accurate historical accounts of marginalized groups.

Workplace

• Role of Workplace in Socialization:

  • Workers require socialization to navigate new environments and cultures, including both material (how to use equipment) and nonmaterial (interpersonal communication) aspects.

  • Companies need to create robust onboarding programs to ensure employee success and retention (Cebollero 2019).

• Job-Hopping Trend: With many individuals changing jobs frequently, being socialized into diverse work cultures has become increasingly important.

Religion

• Importance: Religious institutions serve as significant avenues for socialization.

• Functions:

  • Teach participants how to interact with religious materials and structure family events around religious practices.

  • Enforce societal norms and gender roles through communal values and rituals.

Government

• Government’s Role in Socialization:

  • Age norms set by government shape societal expectations (e.g., adulthood begins at 18).

  • Initiates critical transitions (e.g., registering for selective service).

Mass Media

• Influences of Mass Media:

  • Distributes norms and values using platforms like television, social media, and news.

  • Shapes general understanding of material culture and societal expectations.

Sociology in the Real World: Media Influence on Gender

• Concerns Regarding "Princess Culture":

  • Critics highlight issues with the portrayal of female characters in Disney movies, which often perpetuate stereotypes of passivity and dependence on male counterparts for fulfillment.

• Impact on Development:

  • Emphasis on beauty and traditional gender roles in media may hinder girls' interests in STEM fields and other areas not aligned with feminine norms.

• Alternative Perspectives:

  • Some researchers argue that engagement with media can mitigate the negative impacts of such portrayals, encouraging a balanced approach.

• Evolution of Representation:

  • Newer Disney films feature stronger, more independent female leads, celebrating empowerment and sisterhood rather than romantic interests (e.g., Brave, Moana, Frozen).

  • These changes reflect an evolving understanding of gender representation in children's media, indicating an awareness of the concerns raised by parents and researchers alike.

Understanding Socialization

• Lifelong Process: Socialization is not a one-time event; rather, it occurs continuously throughout life.

• Role of Age Norms: In the U.S., socialization is influenced by age norms and time-related regulations (Settersten 2002), leading to key transition points such as:

  • Becoming school age.

  • Entering the workforce.

  • Retirement.

• Child Labor Laws: In the U.S., child labor laws prioritize education over work, while in other countries (e.g., Niger and Sierra Leone), child labor remains common and accepted (UNICEF 2012).

Life After High School Around the World

• U.S. Trends:

  • Approximately two-thirds of recent high school graduates enroll in college.

  • One-third engages in the workforce—either employed or seeking employment (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2020).

  • Of those attending college, around 69% begin immediately after graduation (NCES 2020).

• International Comparisons:

  • Many Western European countries exhibit similar trends in college education but with more students taking gap years or having mandatory waiting periods.

  • An example is Denmark, where previously only 25% of graduates enrolled immediately, dropping to 15% in 2018 (Ritzau 2019). Government incentives encourage immediate enrollment due to college being nearly universally free.

• Socialization Differences:

  • In contrast to more common practices abroad, the U.S. emphasizes selecting colleges or workforce options by late teens.

  • Military conscription is mandatory in several countries for men and in some for women (e.g., Sweden, Israel, Norway).

Generation Differences in Socialization

• Millennial Perspectives:

  • Millennials (born from early 1980s to mid-1990s) have different views on the timing of adulthood compared to Baby Boomers and Gen Xers.

  • Economic factors, particularly the financial recession of 2008, have delayed key milestones traditionally seen as markers of adulthood:

    • Completing education.

    • Leaving home.

    • Achieving financial independence.

    • Marrying.

    • Having children.

• Boomerang Generation:

  • Many Millennial graduates return to their parental homes due to inadequate job opportunities (Davidson, 2014).

  • This inability to attain adult milestones may have long-term societal implications.

Resocialization Process

• Defining Resocialization:

  • Involves removing previously useful behaviors that no longer apply to new roles, especially when entering environments such as senior care centers, boarding schools, or prisons.

  • More stressful than typical socialization due to the need to unlearn behaviors.

• Total Institutions:

  • Common contexts for resocialization, such as prisons, military, and cults, isolate individuals from society, enforcing new rules.

  • 6.9 million Americans were incarcerated as of 2012 (U.S. Department of Justice 2012).

• Degradation Ceremony:

  • New members lose old identities and must adapt to new ones, which can be either gentle or extreme. For example:

    • Elderly entering care homes may part with past possessions, losing aspects of their identity.

    • Prisoners lose personal freedoms and belongings.

    • Soldiers receive haircuts and uniforms to signify new military identities.

• Post-Resocialization:

  • Adaptation to new identities involves learning behavior relevant to the new environment. For instance:

    • Military training focuses on discipline and teamwork.

    • Successful transitions can occur in civilian workplaces; however, challenges may similarly arise from returning to civilian life after total institutional experiences.

    • Corporate training sometimes incorporates resocialization concepts to help employees shed old behaviors.