1.2 Developments in Dar al-Islam

Developments in Dar al-Islam

• Spread of Islam

  • After Muhammad's death in 632, Islam expanded rapidly through military actions and merchants.
  • Reached from India to Spain, showing tolerance towards Christians and Jews who embraced monotheism.
  • The Abbasid Empire became a center for learning, especially at the House of Wisdom in Baghdad.

• Invasions and Challenges

  • The Abbasid Empire faced multiple challenges by the 1100s-1200s:
  • Conflicts with nomadic groups in Central Asia.
  • European invasions.

• Mamluks

  • Enslaved Turks known as Mamluks served as soldiers and bureaucrats in Egypt.
  • Established the Mamluk Sultanate (1250-1517) and facilitated trade.
  • Declined due to Portuguese and European sea routes emergence.

• Seljuk Turks

  • Central Asian Muslims who began conquering parts of the Middle East in the 11th century.
  • Established sultan as a political title, reducing the Abbasid caliph's power.

• Crusaders

  • Limited Christian access to holy sites by Seljuk Turks, prompting the European military response known as the Crusades.

• Mongols

  • Conquered the remaining Abbasid Empire in 1258, ending both the Abbasid and Seljuk rule, but halted in Egypt by the Mamluks.

• Economic Shifts

  • Trade routes began shifting away from Baghdad, leading to its economic decline as canals deteriorated.
  • This impacted food supply for the urban population.

Cultural and Social Life

• Political Fragmentation

  • New Islamic states emerged with distinct ethnic backgrounds influenced heavily by Turkic culture:
  • Examples: Mamluks, Seljuks, Delhi Sultanate.
  • By the 16th century, three significant empires: Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal emerged from Turkic roots.

• INTELLECTUAL ACHIEVEMENTS

  • Islamic scholars preserved and translated Greek texts, transmitted knowledge in mathematics and paper-making from China.
  • Noteworthy scholars:
  • Nasir al-Din al-Tusi: Contributed to astronomy and trigonometry; built advanced observatory.
  • Ibn Khaldun: Founder of historiography and sociology.
  • 'A'ishah al-Ba'uniyyah: Prolific female Muslim writer of the time.

• Sufi Influence

  • Sufi mystics emphasized personal introspection and adapted Islam to local cultures, facilitating its spread.

Commerce, Class, and Society

• Merchants in Islamic Society

  • Viewed with prestige, derived partly from Muhammad’s history as a merchant.
  • Wealth and influence rose with the revival of trade routes, and traders often served as missionaries.

• Social Structure and Diversity

  • Shifted discrimination against non-Arabs faded by the 9th century, ensuring a stable military order.

• Slavery

  • Islam did not allow Muslims to enslave other Muslims; protected certain religious groups.
  • Women slaves experienced more autonomy than wives and could earn their freedom.

• Status of Women

  • Muhammad elevated women's status, prohibiting female infanticide, ensuring inheritance rights, and promoting education.
  • Despite societal improvements, women's rights faced new limitations as urbanization increased.

Islamic Rule in Spain

• Umayyads in Spain

  • Established rule in Spain from 711, designating Córdoba as the capital.
  • Faced a significant defeat at the Battle of Tours (732) against Frankish forces, marking the limit of Islamic expansion in Western Europe.

• Córdoba as a Cultural Center

  • Became a hub of learning and cultural exchange; had the world's largest library.
  • Muslim, Christian, and Jewish scholars exchanged ideas:
  • Ibn Rushd (Averroes): Influenced Jewish and Christian philosophical thought.
  • Innovations contributed significantly to the European Renaissance.

Key Terms

• Government:

  • Mamluk Sultanate
  • Seljuk Turks
  • Sultan

• Culture (Religion):

  • Mamluks
  • Muhammad
  • Crusaders
  • Sufis
  • Abbasid Caliphate
  • Mongols

• Culture (Golden Age):

  • House of Wisdom
  • Baghdad
  • Nasir al-Din al-Tusi
  • 'A'ishah al-Ba'uniyyah