Personality, Motivation, and Emotion

Ch. 9  Motivation & Emotion

1. Achievement Motive (Description & Assessing)

The achievement motive is an internal drive that compels individuals to set challenging goals, pursue excellence, and persist despite obstacles. It reflects one’s desire for success, mastery, and competence. Researchers often measure this motive via self-report questionnaires (e.g., the Thematic Apperception Test) and behavioral tasks that assess persistence and response to failure.

Ex.)  A college student chooses a difficult research project, not only to earn a high grade but to prove to themselves that they can overcome challenges. Their persistence in revising hypotheses and analyzing data—despite initial setbacks—demonstrates a strong achievement motive.

2. Drive Reduction Theory

Drive Reduction Theory asserts that biological needs (such as hunger, thirst, or pain) create an internal state of tension (a “drive”), which motivates behavior aimed at reducing that tension and restoring balance (homeostasis). The relief provided by meeting the need reinforces the behavior.

Ex.)  When you’re dehydrated after a long run, the discomfort you feel propels you to drink water. Once you hydrate, the internal tension decreases, reinforcing the behavior of drinking water when thirsty.

3. Ghrelin

Ghrelin is a hormone secreted primarily by the stomach that signals hunger to the brain. Its levels increase before meals, stimulating appetite, and decrease after eating. Ghrelin plays a crucial role in regulating short-term energy balance and food intake.

Ex.)  Before dinner, rising ghrelin levels make you feel increasingly hungry—even if you had a snack earlier—alerting your brain that it’s time to eat. After a satisfying meal, ghrelin levels drop, reducing your desire for more food.

4. Homeostasis

Homeostasis is the biological process that maintains internal stability and equilibrium (such as temperature, pH, and hydration) despite external changes. It involves feedback systems that trigger corrective responses to restore balance.

Ex.)  When your body temperature rises during exercise, you begin to sweat. The evaporation of sweat cools you down, returning your body temperature to its normal range—illustrating homeostasis in action.

5. Incentive Theories

Incentive theories suggest that behavior is driven by external rewards or incentives rather than solely by the reduction of internal drives. Positive outcomes (such as praise, money, or pleasurable experiences) attract behavior even when a basic need is not pressing.

Ex.)  An employee works extra hours not because they are tired (an internal state) but because they anticipate a bonus and recognition from their boss—an external incentive that pulls them toward higher performance.

6. Instincts

Instincts are innate, fixed patterns of behavior that are biologically programmed and shared by members of a species. They occur without prior learning and serve essential survival functions.

Ex.)  Newborn mammals exhibit the rooting reflex—a behavior that helps them locate their mother’s nipple for feeding—demonstrating an instinctive behavior critical for survival.

7. Leptin

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Leptin is a hormone produced by fat cells (adipose tissue) that communicates to the brain that the body has sufficient energy stores. It decreases appetite by signaling satiety and plays an important role in long-term energy balance.

Ex.)  After a hearty meal, leptin levels increase and send signals to your brain that you are full, helping to curb further food intake. In individuals with leptin resistance, this signal might be weakened, contributing to overeating and weight gain.

8. Lewin’s Motivational Conflicts Theory

Lewin’s theory describes how behavior results from competing motivational forces. He identified several types of conflicts:

• Approach–Approach Conflict: Choosing between two attractive outcomes.

• Avoidance–Avoidance Conflict: Choosing between two undesirable outcomes.

• Approach–Avoidance Conflict: A single goal has both appealing and unappealing aspects.

Ex.)  Imagine deciding whether to study for an exam (which promises future rewards but requires immediate effort) or go out with friends (which offers immediate pleasure but might jeopardize academic performance). This dilemma typifies an approach–avoidance conflict.

9. Motivation

Motivation is the process that initiates, directs, and sustains behavior. It encompasses both intrinsic factors (internal desires, such as curiosity or personal growth) and extrinsic factors (external rewards, such as money or praise).

Ex.)  A musician practices for hours not only to earn applause (extrinsic) but also because they feel a deep personal connection to their art (intrinsic), demonstrating a blend of motivational forces.

10. Self-Determination Theory

Self-Determination Theory (SDT) posits that optimal motivation arises when three basic psychological needs are satisfied: autonomy (control over one’s actions), competence (effectiveness in activities), and relatedness (a sense of connection with others). It distinguishes between intrinsic motivation (engaging in behavior for its own sake) and extrinsic motivation (engaging in behavior for external rewards).

Ex.)  A student who chooses a research topic they are passionate about (autonomy), feels skilled in conducting experiments (competence), and enjoys collaborative work with peers (relatedness) is likely to be highly motivated, in contrast to someone who works solely for good grades.

11. Yerkes-Dodson Law

The Yerkes-Dodson Law describes an empirical relationship between arousal and performance. It suggests that performance improves with moderate levels of arousal but declines when arousal becomes too low or too high. The optimal arousal level may differ based on the complexity of the task.

Ex.)  An athlete might perform best during a competition when they are excited yet focused. However, if they become overly anxious (too high arousal) or under-aroused (too relaxed), their performance may suffer.

12. Affective Forecasting

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Affective forecasting is the process of predicting one’s future emotional states. Research has shown that people frequently overestimate both the intensity and duration of their future emotional reactions, which can influence decision-making and goal setting.

Ex.)  Before buying a new gadget, a consumer might predict that it will bring long-term joy. However, once the novelty wears off, the actual emotional benefit is often less than anticipated—a common error in affective forecasting.

13. Display Rules

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Display rules are culturally and socially learned guidelines that dictate which emotions are appropriate to express, when, and in what manner. They help individuals manage and modify emotional expressions to conform to social norms and expectations.

• Distinct Example:
  In a professional setting, a person may feel frustrated but chooses to smile and remain calm. This adherence to display rules helps maintain a courteous environment despite underlying emotions.

14. Galvanic Skin Response (GSR)

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GSR measures changes in the electrical conductivity of the skin, which increase with sweat gland activity during emotional arousal. It is commonly used in psychophysiological research and polygraph tests to gauge stress or excitement.

• Distinct Example:
  During a public speaking event, a speaker’s GSR might spike as they feel nervous. This physiological marker helps researchers understand the link between stress and performance.

15. Components of Emotion

• Cognitive Component:

  •  The mental processes involved in recognizing, labeling, and appraising an emotional experience.

    • Ex.)  When watching a sad movie, you may think, “This is heartbreaking,” which is the cognitive interpretation of the emotional experience.

• Physiological Component (ANS & Neural Circuits):

  •  The bodily responses to an emotion, such as increased heart rate, hormonal changes, or neural activation in areas like the amygdala.

    • Ex.)  During a frightening situation, your heart may race and your palms might sweat—a clear physiological response driven by the autonomic nervous system.

• Behavioral Component:

  • The outward expression of emotions, including facial expressions, body language, and vocal intonations.

  • Ex.)  A person laughing uncontrollably when they are joyful illustrates the behavioral expression of their internal emotional state.

16. Difficulty Describing Emotions

People sometimes struggle to describe their emotions because feelings can be complex, mixed, and subjective. Limited emotional vocabulary, cultural taboos, and the subtle interplay between physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation can all contribute to this difficulty.

Ex.)  An individual might feel simultaneously excited and anxious about a new job opportunity, making it hard to articulate the full spectrum of their emotional experience in a single sentence.

17. Autonomic Nervous System’s Response to Arousal

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) automatically regulates bodily functions such as heart rate, respiration, and digestion. In response to arousing stimuli (e.g., fear, excitement), the sympathetic branch activates a “fight or flight” response, while the parasympathetic branch later restores calm.

Ex.)  When startled by a loud noise, your heart rate quickly accelerates and you begin to sweat—physiological responses managed by the ANS to prepare you for immediate action.

18. Role of the Amygdala in Emotion

The amygdala, an almond-shaped structure within the limbic system, is central to processing and memory of emotional reactions—especially fear and pleasure. It helps evaluate the emotional significance of stimuli and triggers physiological responses.

Ex.)  In a situation where you suddenly see a snake, your amygdala rapidly processes the threat and activates a fear response before you consciously register the danger, illustrating its critical role in survival.

19. Behavioral Expression of Emotions

Emotions are externally expressed through nonverbal cues such as facial expressions, gestures, posture, and tone of voice. These behaviors often communicate one’s internal emotional state to others, even when words are absent.

Ex.)  During a heartfelt conversation, a friend’s warm smile, relaxed posture, and gentle tone signal their empathy and understanding, clearly revealing their emotional state to you.

20. Paul Ekman and Wallace Friesen Studies

Ekman and Friesen conducted groundbreaking research demonstrating that certain facial expressions associated with basic emotions (e.g., happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, disgust) are universal across cultures. Their work provided strong evidence for the biological basis of emotional expression.

Ex.)  Their studies showed that even individuals from isolated cultures, with little exposure to Western media, could accurately interpret a surprised or angry facial expression—underscoring the universality of these expressions.

21. “Push vs. Pull Theories”

These theories differentiate between internal forces (drive theories)  that “push” behavior (e.g., physiological needs or discomfort) and external incentives (incentive theories) that “pull” behavior (e.g., rewards or appealing stimuli). Both forces can operate simultaneously to influence behavior.

Ex.)  Consider eating a snack: you might eat because your body is low on energy (push) but also because the sight and smell of freshly baked cookies are highly tempting (pull).

22. Evolutionary Explanations for Dominance, Aggression, and Sex Drive

Evolutionary psychologists propose that behaviors such as dominance, aggression, and sex drive have adaptive value. They argue that these behaviors evolved to solve survival and reproductive challenges—for example, by securing resources or attracting mates.

Ex.)  In ancestral environments, an individual who demonstrated controlled aggression might have successfully defended their group’s territory, thereby increasing their chances of survival and passing on their genes.

23. Role of the Lateral Hypothalamus in Hunger

The lateral hypothalamus is a brain region that activates when the body needs energy. Its stimulation triggers hunger signals and food-seeking behavior, playing an essential role in initiating feeding.

Ex.)  Lesion studies have shown that damage to the lateral hypothalamus in animals can lead to a dramatic reduction in food intake, confirming its critical role in the onset of hunger.

24. Role of the Ventromedial Nucleus of the Hypothalamus

• Definition:
  The ventromedial nucleus (VMN) functions as a satiety center in the brain. When activated, it sends signals that reduce appetite and inhibit further eating, thereby helping to regulate energy balance.

Ex.)  Experiments have demonstrated that animals with lesions in the VMN tend to overeat and gain weight, highlighting its role as a “stop signal” in feeding behavior.

25. Palatability in the Regulation of Hunger

Palatability refers to how appealing or rewarding food is based on its taste, texture, and aroma. Highly palatable foods can override normal satiety signals, leading to increased consumption even when energy needs are met.

Ex.)  In an environment where sugary snacks are abundantly available, people might continue eating despite feeling full because the food’s taste creates a rewarding experience that competes with the body’s signals to stop.

26. Quantity Available in the Regulation of Hunger

The sheer amount of food present in an environment can influence consumption. A large quantity of food can prompt individuals to eat more, partly due to visual cues and the psychology of abundance overriding internal cues of fullness.

Ex.)  At a buffet, diners may take multiple servings simply because there is an overwhelming variety and quantity of food, even if they would normally eat only a modest meal at home.

27. Variety in the Regulation of Hunger

A wide assortment of food options increases sensory stimulation and arousal, often leading to greater consumption. Variety can make meals more enticing, causing individuals to sample more different items even when they are not particularly hungry.

Ex.)  A multi-course meal with several appetizers, entrees, and desserts may result in overeating because the diverse flavors and textures continuously renew the desire to eat.

28. Presence of Others in the Regulation of Hunger

Social factors significantly influence eating behavior. The presence of others can modify individual intake through mechanisms such as social facilitation, conformity, or competition.

Ex.)  Studies have shown that people often eat more at a social gathering—such as a dinner party—than when eating alone, as they mirror the behaviors of those around them.

29. Stress in the Regulation of Hunger

Stress can affect appetite and eating patterns in complex ways. While acute stress may temporarily suppress appetite, chronic stress often leads to increased eating—especially of “comfort foods”—due to hormonal changes (e.g., elevated cortisol levels).

Ex.)  During exam periods, some students might experience stress-induced overeating as a coping mechanism, while others might lose their appetite entirely. Both reactions illustrate the variable effects of stress on hunger.

30. Exposure to Food Cues in the Regulation of Hunger

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Food cues—such as the smell of baked bread or images of a sizzling steak—can trigger neural responses in reward centers of the brain, prompting hunger and food-seeking behavior even in the absence of a physiological need.

Ex.)  Walking past a bakery and catching the aroma of freshly baked goods might stimulate your appetite, leading you to crave food even if you have recently eaten.

Ch. 11  Personality

1. Levels of Consciousness

Levels of consciousness refer to the layers of awareness in the mind. Freud’s model distinguishes among the conscious (thoughts and feelings you’re aware of), the preconscious (memories and information that can be easily recalled), and the unconscious (deep-seated, often repressed feelings and impulses that influence behavior without one’s awareness).

Ex.)  When solving a puzzle, you are aware of your immediate thought process (conscious), but a sudden insight might arise from a memory you weren’t actively thinking about (preconscious). Meanwhile, unresolved childhood experiences might unconsciously affect your decision-making.

2. id, Ego, Superego

In Freud’s structural model, the id operates on the pleasure principle by demanding immediate gratification of instinctual drives, the ego works on the reality principle to mediate between the id’s demands and external reality, and the superego internalizes societal norms and moral values to guide behavior and self-criticism.

Ex.)  Imagine a person who feels a sudden urge to eat a large piece of cake (id). Their ego intervenes by considering the consequences (e.g., health concerns), and the superego reminds them of their dietary goals and social expectations about moderation.

3. Freud’s Defense Mechanisms

Defense mechanisms are unconscious strategies employed by the ego to reduce anxiety from conflicts between the id and superego or from distressing thoughts. These mechanisms can alter or distort reality to protect the individual from feelings that are too difficult to handle.

Ex.)  A student who fails an exam might unconsciously use rationalization to explain the poor performance as a result of an unfair test rather than their lack of preparation, thereby easing the emotional impact of failure.

4. Psychodynamic, Behavioral, Humanistic, and Trait Theories (Focus)

• Psychodynamic Theories: Focus on unconscious processes, early childhood experiences, and internal conflicts as drivers of behavior.

• Behavioral Theories: Emphasize observable behavior, learning through conditioning, and the role of environmental stimuli.

• Humanistic Theories: Stress free will, personal growth, and self-actualization as central to understanding behavior.

• Trait Theories: Aim to identify, describe, and measure stable personality characteristics that differentiate individuals.

Ex.)  Consider a person’s response to stress: A psychodynamic approach might explore unresolved childhood conflicts, a behavioral approach might analyze learned stress responses, a humanistic approach would focus on the person’s potential for growth despite stress, and a trait approach might assess levels of neuroticism as a stable personality factor.

5. Projective Tests

Projective tests are psychological assessments that use ambiguous stimuli (such as inkblots or pictures) to reveal unconscious thoughts, feelings, and desires. The premise is that individuals project their internal experiences onto the ambiguous material, thereby disclosing aspects of their personality that might be hidden from direct self-report measures.

Ex.)  In a Rorschach test, a subject might see a “butterfly” in an inkblot. Their interpretation, including details about color or movement, can provide insight into their inner conflicts or emotional state.

6. Self-Actualizing Tendency

The self-actualizing tendency is the inherent drive to realize one’s full potential, to grow, and to achieve personal fulfillment. It is central to humanistic psychology and is seen as the highest level of psychological development, coming into play once more basic needs are met.

Ex.)  An artist who continually experiments with new styles and seeks deeper personal meaning in their work is demonstrating a self-actualizing tendency by striving for excellence and authenticity beyond external rewards.

7. Five-Factor Model of Personality

The Five-Factor Model posits that personality can be distilled into five broad dimensions:

• Openness: Creativity, imagination, and openness to new experiences.

• Conscientiousness: Organization, dependability, and discipline.

• Extraversion: Sociability, assertiveness, and the tendency to seek stimulation in the company of others.

• Agreeableness: Compassion, cooperation, and a tendency toward prosocial behavior.

• Neuroticism: Emotional instability, anxiety, and a propensity to experience negative emotions.

Ex.)  A job candidate who scores high in conscientiousness and agreeableness may be viewed as reliable and cooperative, while someone high in neuroticism might be more sensitive to stress. This model helps predict behavior across various life contexts.

8. Social-Cognitive Theory

Social-cognitive theory, developed by Albert Bandura, posits that learning occurs in a social context through observation, imitation, and modeling. It emphasizes the importance of cognitive processes, such as self-regulation, outcome expectations, and self-efficacy, in shaping behavior.

Ex.)  A teenager observes a peer successfully negotiating a conflict with calm assertiveness and decides to adopt similar strategies. Their confidence in their ability to manage conflicts (self-efficacy) reinforces the learned behavior.

9. Reciprocal Determinism

Reciprocal determinism is the concept that behavior, personal factors (e.g., cognitive processes, personality traits), and environmental influences interact in a bidirectional, dynamic manner. Changes in one area can lead to adjustments in the others over time.

Ex.)  A student’s belief in their academic abilities (personal factor) may lead them to participate more actively in class (behavior), which in turn fosters positive interactions with peers and teachers (environment), further boosting their self-confidence.

10. Independent vs. Interdependent (Individualism vs. Collectivism)

• Independent (Individualism): Cultures or personalities that emphasize autonomy, personal goals, and self-reliance.

• Interdependent (Collectivism): Cultures or personalities that stress group harmony, social connectedness, and shared responsibilities.

Ex.)  In an individualistic society, a student might choose a career path based solely on personal interests, whereas in a collectivist society, the same student might consider family expectations and community needs when making career decisions.

11. Observational Learning

Observational learning is the process of acquiring new behaviors by watching others. This type of learning involves attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. It explains how individuals can learn complex behaviors without direct reinforcement.

Ex.)  A child watches their parent carefully prepare a meal and later imitates the steps to make a simple sandwich, even though no explicit instruction was given. This learning by observation is central to acquiring everyday skills.

12. Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s belief in their own ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish tasks. This belief influences motivation, perseverance, and resilience when facing challenges.

Ex.)  A student who believes they can master difficult math problems is more likely to persist through challenging assignments and ultimately achieve higher performance, demonstrating the impact of self-efficacy on academic success.

13. Person-Centered Theory (Self Theory)

Person-centered theory, primarily associated with Carl Rogers, focuses on the self-concept, the ideal self, and the conditions necessary for personal growth. It posits that individuals have an inherent drive toward self-actualization, provided they receive unconditional positive regard and support.

Ex.)  In a therapeutic setting, a client who feels genuinely accepted by their therapist is more likely to explore and integrate conflicting aspects of their identity, moving closer to an authentic self—a core tenet of person-centered therapy.

14. Evolutionary Perspective

The evolutionary perspective explains personality traits and behaviors as adaptive responses that have evolved to solve recurrent problems in human ancestral environments. It uses natural selection to account for traits that have survival or reproductive value.

Ex.)  Traits such as risk-taking or competitiveness may have evolved in ancestral environments to enhance survival by securing resources or mates. For instance, the tendency to take calculated risks in leadership may have helped early humans secure resources for their group.

15. Freud’s Defense Mechanisms (Ego Strategies)

Defense mechanisms are unconscious strategies the ego employs to protect the individual from anxiety and internal conflict. They distort, deny, or transform reality to reduce psychological distress. Common mechanisms include:

• Rationalization: Justifying behaviors with logical reasons, rather than true motives.

• Repression: Keeping distressing thoughts buried in the unconscious.

• Projection: Attributing one’s own unacceptable feelings to someone else.

• Displacement: Redirecting emotions to a less threatening target.

• Reaction Formation: Acting in a manner opposite to one’s true feelings.

• Regression: Reverting to behaviors of an earlier developmental stage.

• Identification: Adopting the traits or attitudes of someone else to bolster self-esteem.

Ex.)  A person who fails to secure a promotion might unconsciously downplay the importance of career success (rationalization) or criticize a coworker for similar shortcomings (projection), rather than confronting their own insecurities.

16. Personal Unconscious

The personal unconscious, according to Freud, contains memories, experiences, and repressed thoughts that are unique to the individual. Although not immediately accessible to conscious awareness, these contents can influence behavior and emotional responses.

Ex.)  A person may have forgotten a traumatic childhood incident but still exhibit anxiety in situations that subconsciously remind them of that event, demonstrating the influence of the personal unconscious.

17. Collective Unconscious

Carl Jung’s concept of the collective unconscious refers to structures of the unconscious mind shared by all humans, containing archetypes and universal symbols derived from ancestral experiences.

Ex.)  Across different cultures, recurring themes such as the “hero’s journey” in myths and legends suggest that deep-seated images (archetypes) reside in the collective unconscious, influencing art, literature, and behavior worldwide.

18. Archetypes

Archetypes are universal, inherited symbols or themes that recur in myths, dreams, and literature. They represent fundamental human motifs—such as the hero, the mother, or the trickster—that shape how we understand roles and relationships.

Ex.)  The archetype of the “wise old man” appears in many cultures as a mentor figure who guides the hero. This recurring image resonates across different stories, reflecting shared human experiences and values.

19. Adler (Alfred Adler)

Alfred Adler was a psychologist who diverged from Freud by emphasizing social interest, feelings of inferiority, and the drive for superiority. He argued that striving to overcome perceived inferiority and achieve significance was central to personality development.

Ex.)  Adler observed that individuals who feel inferior in one area (e.g., physical stature) might channel their energies into developing skills in another area (e.g., academics or art), thereby compensating for their perceived weaknesses.

20. Adler’s Childhood

Adler’s own early experiences of feeling smaller or less powerful than his peers informed his theory. He believed that these childhood feelings of inferiority served as a catalyst for the lifelong drive to achieve, grow, and overcome limitations.

Ex.)  Reflecting on his personal struggles, Adler noted that his sensitivity to criticism and determination to prove himself were rooted in early experiences of inadequacy, which in turn fueled his theories on compensatory striving.

21. Describe Adler’s Break from Freud

Adler broke from Freud’s focus on unconscious sexual and aggressive drives by emphasizing social factors and the striving for significance. He argued that the primary motivating force is not repressed libidinal energy but the effort to overcome inferiority and achieve belonging and competence.

Instead of interpreting a person’s ambition solely as an expression of sexual or aggressive impulses (as Freud might), Adler viewed it as a constructive effort to master challenges and contribute to society.

22. What Did Adler Believe Was the Foremost Source of Human Motivation?

Adler maintained that the drive to overcome feelings of inferiority—the inferiority complex—and the desire to achieve significance and social belonging are the foremost sources of human motivation.

Ex.)  An individual who constantly strives to improve their skills and contribute to their community is motivated by a deep-seated need to counteract early feelings of inadequacy, which Adler believed was the primary force behind personal development.

23. Striving

Striving refers to the continuous effort to overcome challenges and deficiencies. In Adlerian theory, it represents the drive to move from a state of perceived inferiority toward excellence, achievement, and personal growth.

Ex.) A young entrepreneur who learns from failures, adapts business strategies, and persists in the face of setbacks is exhibiting a healthy form of striving, aiming to transform perceived weaknesses into strengths.

24. Compensation

Compensation is a psychological process in which individuals develop strengths in one area to make up for deficiencies or weaknesses in another. While it can lead to balanced growth, overcompensation may result in maladaptive behaviors or an exaggerated display of superiority.

Ex.)  A student who struggles academically might excel in sports or the arts as a way of offsetting feelings of inadequacy in the classroom. When this compensation is balanced, it fosters overall self-esteem; when excessive, it may lead to an unbalanced personality.

25. Adler’s Inferiority Complex

An inferiority complex, as defined by Adler, is a pervasive sense of inadequacy that overwhelms an individual, often leading to compensatory behavior that can be either constructive or maladaptive. This complex arises when feelings of inferiority are not properly resolved, resulting in either overcompensation or withdrawal.

Ex.)  A person who constantly seeks validation and becomes defensive in social situations may be exhibiting an inferiority complex. Their exaggerated efforts to prove themselves might be a response to deep-seated insecurities formed during childhood.