Motivation and Emotion – Exam Review Notes

Motivation: Definitions

• Motivation: wants/needs that direct behavior toward a goal
• Intrinsic: arises from internal factors; behavior performed for personal satisfaction
• Extrinsic: arises from external factors; behavior performed to obtain external reward
• Overjustification effect: extrinsic reward can ↓ intrinsic motivation (esp. when reward is expected & tangible)

Classical Theories of Motivation

• Instinct Theory (James): behavior driven by innate instincts aiding survival; criticized for ignoring learning
• Drive Theory: deviations from homeostasis → physiological needs → drives → behavior to restore balance; habits strengthen drive-reducing acts
• Arousal Theory: seek optimal arousal; under-arousal → boredom, over-arousal → stress
  • Yerkes-Dodson Law: optimal performance at moderate arousal; difficult tasks best at lower, simple at higher arousal levels

Contemporary Concepts

• Self-Efficacy (Bandura): belief in own capability; expectations about outcomes guide motivation
• Social motives: need for achievement, affiliation, intimacy
• Maslow’s Hierarchy: satisfy lower (physiological → safety → love/belonging → esteem) before higher (self-actualization)

Hunger & Eating

• Hunger signals: stomach contractions, low blood glucose (pancreas/liver)
• Satiety signals: ↑ glucose, GI cues, leptin from fat cells
• Metabolic rate: energy expended per time; varies individually
• Set-Point Theory: genetically determined ideal body weight resisted by compensatory changes (does not explain social/environmental effects)

Body Weight & Obesity

• Weight status (BMI): 25!!30 obese; BMI!>!40 morbidly obese
• Contributing factors: genetics, calories in/out, metabolism, socioeconomic & physical environment
• Risks: CVD, stroke, Type 2 diabetes, cancers, infertility, arthritis, liver disease, sleep apnea
• Treatment: diet + exercise; bariatric surgery (gastric banding) for severe cases

Eating Disorders

• Bulimia Nervosa: binge → compensatory behaviors (vomit, laxatives, over-exercise); risks—kidney/heart failure, tooth decay, mood & substance issues
• Anorexia Nervosa: weight < average via starvation/exercise; distorted body image; risks—bone loss, organ failure, amenorrhea, death
• Highest risk: Caucasian females 15–19 in Western cultures; factors—media, genetics, low self-esteem, stress, abuse, perfectionism, family dynamics

Sexual Behavior & Motivation

• Hypothalamus: critical for sexual behavior capability; hormones (e.g., testosterone) modulate motivation
• Amygdala & Nucleus Accumbens: influence sexual motivation, not performance
• Kinsey Surveys: wide variation; females as interested as males, masturbation common, homosexual acts common; Kinsey Scale grades orientation
• Masters & Johnson: four-phase sexual response—Excitement, Plateau, Orgasm, Resolution (measured physiological variables)

Sexual Orientation & Gender Identity

• Sexual orientation: stable emotional/erotic attraction; 3\%–10\% adults identify as homosexual; biological factors implicated
• Gender identity: personal sense of male/female; may differ from biological sex
  • Gender dysphoria: incongruence + distress \ge 6 months
  • Treatment: transgender hormone therapy, transition procedures

Emotion: Basics

• Mood: prolonged, less intense, not necessarily stimulus-linked
• Emotion: brief, intense, stimulus-dependent; components—physiological arousal, appraisal, subjective experience

Major Theories of Emotion

• James-Lange: stimulus → physiological arousal → emotion
• Cannon-Bard: arousal & emotion occur simultaneously, independently
• Schachter-Singer (Two-Factor): arousal + cognitive label (context) → emotion
• Lazarus Cognitive-Mediational: appraisal precedes and determines emotion
• Evidence: spinal injuries weaken intensity; facial suppression lowers felt emotion → arousal amplifies but isn’t essential

Biological Bases of Emotion

• Limbic system:
  • Hypothalamus – sympathetic activation
  • Thalamus – sensory relay to cortex & amygdala
  • Amygdala – process emotional info; basolateral complex (conditioning, value), central nucleus (attention, ANS/endocrine control)
  • Hippocampus – integrates emotion & memory

Facial Expressions & Culture

• Cultural display rules dictate expression frequency/intensity; U.S. vs Japan differences in public negativity
• Seven universal expressions: happiness, surprise, sadness, fear, disgust, contempt, anger
• Facial Feedback Hypothesis: expressions influence emotions; e.g., Botox-induced frown paralysis ↓ depression