Christianity: From Jesus to Modern Denominations

Origins: Jesus, Disciples, & Apostolic Era

• Jesus’ key emphases: parables, miracles, “love your enemies,” death + resurrection → foundation of Christian message.
• Core followers = 12 specially-chosen disciples; Jesus designates Peter as leader ("the rock").
• Post-ascension: Judas replaced (Matthias) ⇒ the 12 continue mission despite opposition.
• Initial enemies
  • Roman state (already crucified Jesus; wanted the movement ended).
  • Certain Jewish authorities → hire Saul of Tarsus to suppress the sect.
• Saul’s Damascus vision (“Why are you persecuting Me?”) ⇨ conversion, name changes to Paul; becomes tireless missionary.
• Vocabulary: “Apostle” (Greek ἀπόστολος) = “messenger”; applied to Peter, Paul, the 12, & a few others.

First Christian Communities & Writings

• Believers gather in house-churches; nickname “Christians” coined in Antioch.
• Apostolic correspondence
  • Paul, Peter, et al. write epistles ⇒ appear in New Testament canon.
• Gospel formation timeline
  • Mark (~65–70 CE) earliest.
  • Matthew & Luke (~70–90 CE) add distinct perspectives.
  • John (~90–100 CE) offers theological reflection.
• Tradition: Peter recognized as first Bishop of Rome → seeds papal lineage.

Roman Persecutions & Martyrdom

• Great Fire of Rome (rumored 64 CE) under Emperor Nero
  • Christians scapegoated ⇒ viewed as
  • Superstitious (reject Roman & Jewish worship).
  • Criminal (leader executed).
  • “Cannibals” (misreading of Eucharist: bread + wine ≠ literal flesh & blood).
  • Brutal punishments: human torches, arena deaths.
• Probable executions: Peter (crucified upside-down), Paul (beheaded).
• All apostles martyred except John (dies of old age).

Church Structure & Early Theology

• Local congregations led by bishops.
• Early theologians = Church Fathers (e.g., Origen) ⇒ many also martyred.
• Doctrinal debates start immediately (belief & behavior).
  • Extreme ascetic example: Origen’s self-castration (did not become norm).

Spread to Britain & Constantinian Shift

• Christianity arrives in Roman Britain via converts fleeing persecution; earliest martyr: Alban (beheaded).
• Constantine (vision of \Chi-\Rho symbol, “By this sign conquer”) paints shields ⇒ wins battles ⇒ becomes emperor (Edict of Milan, 313 CE grants worship freedom).
  • Possible political motive: unify empire under single God, sidestep polytheistic rivalries.
• First Ecumenical Council = Nicaea (325 CE)
  • Drafts Nicene Creed: affirms Father–Son consubstantiality.
  • Total of 7 ecumenical councils through 787 CE, mostly Christological.
  • Key doctrinal outcome: Jesus = “fully God and fully man” (hypostatic union).

Imperial Christianity & Early Schisms

• Emperor Theodosius (late 4^{th} cent.) makes Christianity official religion; simultaneously splits empire East/West.
• Breakaways
  • Nestorians (Council of Ephesus, 431 CE): Jesus viewed as human person indwelt by divine Logos.
  • Oriental Orthodox (Council of Chalcedon, 451 CE) reject Chalcedonian formula (“one substance with Father and with humanity”) & papal power.
• Papal ascendancy: Bishop of Rome leverages Peterine claim & Roman administrative skill.
• East–West drift: language barrier (Latin vs. Greek), unilateral creed alteration in West (Filioque clause).

From Dark Ages to Great Schism

• Western chaos: Vandals, fall of Western Empire (476 CE), “Dark Ages.”
• Eastern strength wanes under rising Islam (~7^{th} cent.).
• Charlemagne (800 CE) crowned “Holy Roman Emperor” by Pope ⇒ papal authority to appoint emperors.
• Great Schism (1054 CE)
  • Mutual excommunications create Roman Catholic (West) vs Eastern Orthodox (East).

Crusades & Medieval Church Power

• Crusades (1096–1291): 7 major campaigns to regain Jerusalem.
  • Initiated by pope; demonstrate ability to launch wars.
  • Mixed motives: piety, politics, plunder; collateral damage across Europe & Near East.
• Clerical excesses
  • Services/Bible solely in Latin; laity illiterate ⇒ total priestly control.
  • Indulgences: monetary payments for sin forgiveness; priests act as “holy bouncers.”

Pre-Reformation Critiques

• John Wycliffe (Oxford, 14^{th} cent.)
  • Advocates reform; translates Bible to English; copies burned.

Protestant Reformation

• Martin Luther (1517): 95 Theses nailed to Wittenberg church door.
  • Excommunicated; marries ex-nun Katherine von Bora (smuggled in herring barrels) post-defrocking.
  • Followers labeled Protestants (those who “protest”).
• Other reformers: John Calvin (France), Ulrich Zwingli (Switzerland) → diverge on theology ⇒ multiple Protestant streams.

English Reformation & Counter-Reformation

• England initially Roman Catholic; Protestantism spreads via William Tyndale’s English NT (smuggled).
• Henry VIII seeks annulment from Catherine of Aragon; Pope refuses.
  • Archbishop Thomas Cranmer grants annulment; Henry forms Church of England (Anglican), names himself Supreme Head.
• Council of Trent (1545–1563): Catholic Counter-Reformation
  • Reaffirms tradition; curbs financial abuses; doctrinal clarification.
• Post-Henry shifts
  • Edward VI (age 9) = Protestant push: Cranmer’s 39 Articles; Book of Common Prayer.
  • Mary I (“Bloody Mary”) restores Catholicism; burns Protestants incl. Cranmer.
  • Elizabeth I returns to Protestant settlement.
• James I commissions Authorized (“King James”) Bible (1611).

Global Expansion & Denominational Multiplication

• Colonial era spreads Christianity via empire & missionaries.
• Protestant offshoots range from mainstream (Quakers, Methodists, Baptists) to distinct groups (Latter-day Saints/Mormons, Jehovah’s Witnesses).

Modern Catholic Reform

• Second Vatican Council (Vatican II, 1962–1965)
  • Mass shifts from Latin to vernacular; ecumenical openness; laity participation.

Present Landscape & Reflection

• Major families:
  • Eastern Orthodox
  • Oriental Orthodox
  • Roman Catholic
  • Protestant (Lutherans, Calvinists/Reformed, Anglicans, Methodists, Quakers, Baptists, Pentecostals, etc.)
• Ethical/philosophical question posed: Given fragmentation, “What would Jesus say?”