Christianity: From Jesus to Modern Denominations

Jesus’ key emphases: parables, miracles, “love your enemies,” death + resurrection → foundation of Christian message.
Core followers = $12$ specially-chosen disciples; Jesus designates Peter as leader ("the rock").
Post-ascension: Judas replaced (Matthias) ⇒ the $12$ continue mission despite opposition.
Initial enemies
- Roman state (already crucified Jesus; wanted the movement ended).
- Certain Jewish authorities → hire Saul of Tarsus to suppress the sect.
Saul’s Damascus vision (“Why are you persecuting Me?”) ⇨ conversion, name changes to Paul; becomes tireless missionary.
Vocabulary: “Apostle” (Greek ἀπόστολος) = “messenger”; applied to Peter, Paul, the $12$ , & a few others.

Believers gather in house-churches; nickname “Christians” coined in Antioch.
Apostolic correspondence
- Paul, Peter, et al. write epistles ⇒ appear in New Testament canon.
Gospel formation timeline
- Mark (~ $65–70$ CE) earliest.
- Matthew & Luke (~ $70–90$ CE) add distinct perspectives.
- John (~ $90–100$ CE) offers theological reflection.
Tradition: Peter recognized as first Bishop of Rome → seeds papal lineage.

Local congregations led by bishops.
Early theologians = Church Fathers (e.g., Origen) ⇒ many also martyred.
Doctrinal debates start immediately (belief & behavior).
- Extreme ascetic example: Origen’s self-castration (did not become norm).

Christianity arrives in Roman Britain via converts fleeing persecution; earliest martyr: Alban (beheaded).
Constantine (vision of $\Chi$ - $\Rho$ symbol, “By this sign conquer”) paints shields ⇒ wins battles ⇒ becomes emperor (Edict of Milan, $313$ CE grants worship freedom).
- Possible political motive: unify empire under single God, sidestep polytheistic rivalries.
First Ecumenical Council = Nicaea ( $325$ CE)
- Drafts Nicene Creed: affirms Father–Son consubstantiality.
- Total of $7$ ecumenical councils through $787$ CE, mostly Christological.
- Key doctrinal outcome: Jesus = “fully God and fully man” (hypostatic union).

Emperor Theodosius (late $4^{th}$ cent.) makes Christianity official religion; simultaneously splits empire East/West.
Breakaways
- Nestorians (Council of Ephesus, $431$ CE): Jesus viewed as human person indwelt by divine Logos.
- Oriental Orthodox (Council of Chalcedon, $451$ CE) reject Chalcedonian formula (“one substance with Father and with humanity”) & papal power.
Papal ascendancy: Bishop of Rome leverages Peterine claim & Roman administrative skill.
East–West drift: language barrier (Latin vs. Greek), unilateral creed alteration in West (Filioque clause).

Western chaos: Vandals, fall of Western Empire ( $476$ CE), “Dark Ages.”
Eastern strength wanes under rising Islam (~ $7^{th}$ cent.).
Charlemagne ( $800$ CE) crowned “Holy Roman Emperor” by Pope ⇒ papal authority to appoint emperors.
Great Schism ( $1054$ CE)
- Mutual excommunications create Roman Catholic (West) vs Eastern Orthodox (East).

Crusades ( $1096–1291$ ): $7$ major campaigns to regain Jerusalem.
- Initiated by pope; demonstrate ability to launch wars.
- Mixed motives: piety, politics, plunder; collateral damage across Europe & Near East.
Clerical excesses
- Services/Bible solely in Latin; laity illiterate ⇒ total priestly control.
- Indulgences: monetary payments for sin forgiveness; priests act as “holy bouncers.”

John Wycliffe (Oxford, $14^{th}$ cent.)
- Advocates reform; translates Bible to English; copies burned.

Martin Luther ( $1517$ ): $95$ Theses nailed to Wittenberg church door.
- Excommunicated; marries ex-nun Katherine von Bora (smuggled in herring barrels) post-defrocking.
- Followers labeled Protestants (those who “protest”).
Other reformers: John Calvin (France), Ulrich Zwingli (Switzerland) → diverge on theology ⇒ multiple Protestant streams.

England initially Roman Catholic; Protestantism spreads via William Tyndale’s English NT (smuggled).
Henry VIII seeks annulment from Catherine of Aragon; Pope refuses.
- Archbishop Thomas Cranmer grants annulment; Henry forms Church of England (Anglican), names himself Supreme Head.
Council of Trent ( $1545–1563$ ): Catholic Counter-Reformation
- Reaffirms tradition; curbs financial abuses; doctrinal clarification.
Post-Henry shifts
- Edward VI (age $9$ ) = Protestant push: Cranmer’s $39$ Articles; Book of Common Prayer.
- Mary I (“Bloody Mary”) restores Catholicism; burns Protestants incl. Cranmer.
- Elizabeth I returns to Protestant settlement.
James I commissions Authorized (“King James”) Bible ( $1611$ ).

Colonial era spreads Christianity via empire & missionaries.
Protestant offshoots range from mainstream (Quakers, Methodists, Baptists) to distinct groups (Latter-day Saints/Mormons, Jehovah’s Witnesses).

Second Vatican Council (Vatican II, $1962–1965$ )
- Mass shifts from Latin to vernacular; ecumenical openness; laity participation.

Major families:
- Eastern Orthodox
- Oriental Orthodox
- Roman Catholic
- Protestant (Lutherans, Calvinists/Reformed, Anglicans, Methodists, Quakers, Baptists, Pentecostals, etc.)
Ethical/philosophical question posed: Given fragmentation, “What would Jesus say?”