Study Guide 2

Unit 2

Operant Conditioning Basics 129-141-155

• Law of Effect: the strength of a behavior depends on its consequences.

• Operant Learning: Any procedure or experience in which a behavior becomes stronger or weaker, depending on its consequences. Also called instrumental learning

• Reinforcement: An increase in the strength of a behavior due to its consequences. As a procedure, it means providing consequences for a behavior that increase or maintain the strength of that behavior.

• Positive Reinforcement: A reinforcement procedure or experience in which a behavior is followed by the presentation of, or an increase in the intensity of, a stimulus. Sometimes called reward learning, although the term reward is problematic.

• Positive Reinforcer: Any stimulus which, when presented following a behavior, increases or maintains the strength of that behavior.

• Negative Reinforcement: reinforcement procedure or experience in which a behavior is followed by the removal of, or a decrease in the intensity of, a stimulus. Sometimes called escape learning. 

• Negative reinforcer: Any stimulus which, when removed following a behavior, increases or maintains the strength of that behavior.

• Primary Reinforcer: Any reinforcer that is innately reinforcing; that is, not dependent on its association with other reinforcers. Also called unconditioned reinforcers.

• Secondary Reinforcer: Any reinforcer that has acquired its reinforcing properties through its association with other reinforcers. Also called conditioned reinforcer

• Generalized reinforcer: Any secondary reinforcer that has been paired with several different reinforcers and is effective in a wide variety of situations

• Natural Reinforcer: Any reinforcer that is the spontaneous consequence of a behavior. Also called automatic reinforcer

• Contrived reinforcer: Any reinforcer that is provided by someone or some system for the purpose of changing behavior.

• In operant conditioning, what is contingency: the likelihood that a reinforcer will follow a behavior.

• Motivating Operation: Anything that changes the effectiveness of a consequence. There are two kinds of motivating operations, establishing and abolishing

• Establishing Operation: A motivating operation that increases the effectiveness of a consequence (a reinforcer or punisher).

• Abolishing Operations: A motivating operation that decreases the effectiveness of a consequence (a reinforcer or punisher)

Reinforcement Theories 159-164

• Drives: In Hull’s theory of reinforcement, a motivational state (such as hunger) caused by a period of deprivation (as of food).

• Drive-Reduction Theory: The theory of reinforcement that attributes a reinforcer’s effectiveness to the reduction of a drive.

• Theory of Reinforcement: considers reinforcers to be behaviors rather than stimuli and that attributes a reinforcer’s effectiveness to its probability relative to other behaviors.

• Premack Principle: The observation that high-probability behavior reinforces low-probability behavior

• Equilibrium theory: The theory of reinforcement that says a behavior is reinforcing to the extent that the organism has been deprived (relative to its baseline frequency) of performing that behavior.

Avoidance Behavior 164-170

• Two-Process Theory: The view that avoidance and punishment involve two procedures—Pavlovian and operant learning.

• Sidman Avoidance Procedure: An escape-avoidance training procedure in which no stimulus regularly precedes the aversive stimulus. Also called unsignaled avoidance.

• One-Process Theory: The view that avoidance and punishment involve only one procedure—operant learning. 

Shaping and Chaining 172-180

• Shaping: The reinforcement of successive approximations of a desired behavior.

• Behavior Chain: A series of related behaviors, the last of which produces reinforcement.

  • Parts of a behavior chain for brushing your teeth: Answers will vary. A typical chain might include picking up a toothbrush, dampening the brush under the spigot, putting toothpaste on it, moving the brush against the teeth, rinsing the mouth, rinsing the brush, and returning the brush to its container.

• Task Analysis: The procedure of identifying the component elements of a behavior chain. This is the first step in chaining

• Forward Chaining: A chaining procedure in which training begins with the first link in the chain and adds subsequent links in order

• Backward Chaining: A chaining procedure in which training begins with the last link in the chain and adds preceding links in reverse order.

Operant Explanations of Complex Behaviors (181-192)

•  Problem: Situation where reinforcement is available, but the behavior necessary to produce it isn’t

• What did Harlow’s data suggest about apparently insightful solutions to problems: “insightful” solutions may be arrived at gradually/slowly as a result of a number of learning experiences.

• What did Epstein’s experiment demonstrate about insightful problem solving: insightful problem solving is largely the product of reinforcement/reinforcement history.

Learned Helplessness (193-195)

•  Learned Helplessness: The tendency to give up on a problem as a result of previous exposure to insoluble problems. In experiments, the problem typically involves escape learning.

• Learned Industriousness: The tendency to persist at a problem as a result of previous reinforcement of persistence at difficult problems. 

Schedules of Reinforcement (197-207)

• Schedules of reinforcement: A rule describing the delivery of reinforcers for a behavior.

• Schedule effects: The distinctive rate and pattern of behavior associated with a particular reinforcement schedule.

• Continuous reinforcement: A reinforcement schedule in which a behavior is reinforced each time it occurs. Abbreviated CRF.

• Intermittent Reinforcement: Any of several reinforcement schedules in which a behavior is sometimes reinforced. Also called partial reinforcement.

• Fixed ratio Schedule: A reinforcement schedule in which every nth performance of a behavior is reinforced. Abbreviated FR. 

• Post-Reinforcement Pause: A pause in responding following reinforcement; associated primarily with FI and FR schedules.

• Pre-ratio Pauses: A pause in responding following reinforcement; associated primarily with FI and FR schedules.

• Between-Ratio Pauses: A pause in responding following reinforcement; associated primarily with FI and FR schedules.

• Run-Rate: The rate at which a behavior occurs once it has resumed following reinforcement.

• Variable Ratio (VR Schedule): A reinforcement schedule in which, on average, every nth performance of a behavior is reinforced. 

• Fixed Interval (FI) Schedules: A reinforcement schedule in which a behavior is reinforced the first time it occurs following a specified interval since the last reinforcement.