Attention and Memory in Motor Control — Lecture Notes (HLTH2013)

Attention

• Key concept: Preparation for and performance of motor skills are influenced by our limited capacity to select and attend to information.
• Attention as a Limited Capacity Resource: Our conscious processing, cognitive effort, and the ability to manage multiple, simultaneous skills are constrained by attention capacity.
• Attentional focus and processing: We must decide what to think about, what to ignore, and what to visually monitor during tasks.

Attention Roles in Motor Learning and Skill Acquisition

• Figure 12.1 themes (Ways of viewing attention):
  • Alertness: Being ready to respond; Are you ready? Are you paying attention?
  • Attention is Limited Capacity: Managing and allocating limited attention.
  • Selectivity: How many things can you do at once? Can you follow all instructions? Selecting some cues for attention and ignoring others.
  • Examples: Are you watching the ball or the player? Are you focused on the instructor or other learners?

Attention and Multiple Task Performance

• When performing multiple tasks simultaneously (e.g., driving, scanning, listening to music, talking), performance changes because attention capacity limits multitasking.
• Core question: Why does performance drop with multitasking? Because attention capacity is limited; multiple tasks compete for limited attentional resources.

Attentional Theories (Overview)

1) Serial (Filter) Theory
2) Central Resource Capacity Theory
3) Multiple Resource Theories

• These theories explain attention capacity and multitasking limitations.

Why is Attention Limited? Serial Processing (Filter Theories)

• Primary idea: Processing occurs one task at a time; a bottleneck occurs when multiple stimuli must be processed.
• Psychological Refractory Period example: Only one piece of information is processed at a time, creating delays and errors.
• Bottleneck theory: The bottleneck leads to slower reaction times and increased errors when multitasking.

Filter Theory - Serial Processing (Model concept)

• Filter located at detection/identification stage before response preparation.
• Process: Environmental information → detection/identification → response selection → response preparation.
• Visual: A generic information-processing model showing stages and a serial filter, located before the response stage.

Why is Attention Limited? 2. Central Resource Capacity Theories

• Information processing is carried out in parallel, but attention required to perform tasks consumes central resources.
• Multitasking is possible as long as central resource capacity is not exceeded.

Kahneman’s Central Resource Capacity (CRC) Theory

• Proposes a single central source of attention resources for all activities requiring attention.
• Attention is equated with cognitive effort.
• Available attention varies with conditions of the individual, the task, and the environment.

What determines allocation of CRC? (Kahneman)

1. Arousal
2. Enduring dispositions
3. Momentary intentions
4. Evaluation of demands of capacity

Arousal – The Inverted-U Hypothesis

• Arousal: general state of excitability across physiological, emotional, and mental systems.
• Relationship to performance: as arousal increases, performance improves up to an optimum point, then deteriorates if arousal is too high.
• Key idea: There is a zone of optimum arousal where performance is best; beyond this zone, performance declines (over-arousal, choking, muscle tension, racing mind).

Inverted-U Theory (visual concept)

• Performance quality versus level of arousal forms an inverted-U curve.
• Optimum performance occurs at moderate arousal; too little or too much arousal reduces performance.

Cue-Utilisation Hypothesis

• Low arousal: wide perceptual field; many cues may be processed but with potential distraction.
• High arousal: perceptual narrowing; focus narrows to task-relevant cues, potentially missing important information.
• Arousal affects the breadth of attention and the quality of information processing.

Information processing at high arousal

• High arousal leads to highly filtered information processing (perceptual narrowing).
• Advantage: fewer stimuli to attend to, greater focus on task-relevant cues.
• Disadvantage: important information may be missed, especially in unfamiliar tasks or with unexpected stimuli; fear or startle can distort attention.

Optimal Levels of Arousal – Individual Differences

• Personality: Which individuals perform better at higher arousal levels? Introverts vs Extroverts.
• Type of Task: Gross/simple (e.g., rugby tackle) vs Fine/complex (e.g., golf putting).
• Experience/Stage of Learning: Novice vs experienced performers.

CRC Theory: Attention Capacity and Task Demands

• Attention capacity is influenced by:
  1. Distracting external sensory stimuli
  2. Performing concurrent physical activities

Evaluation of Attention Requirements of Multiple Tasks

• When a second task is introduced, attention available for the second task depends on the primary task complexity:
  • Simple task: more attention available for the second task
  • Complex task: less attention available for the second task

Multiple Resource Theories

• Proposes several attention mechanisms, each with limited resources.
• Success in multitasking depends on whether the two tasks demand attention from the same resource (worse performance) or from different resources (better performance).

Assessing Attention Demands – Dual-Task Procedures

• Dual-task: measure errors and performance drop when performing two tasks simultaneously.
• Primary task: the task of interest performed alone.
• Secondary task added: measure the drop in performance to quantify attentional load of the primary task.
• Result: degree of interference from the second task signifies attentional load of the first task.

In-Class Experiment – Dual-Task (example procedure)

• Primary: index finger tapping with non-dominant hand, three 15-second trials (count taps).
• Secondary: while tapping, draw a shape counter-clockwise;
  • Compare performance on tapping when drawing vs not drawing.

Selective Attention / Attentional Focus

• Concept: Choose some information to attend to and ignore others to manage potential overload.
• Model (Nideffer, 1976, 1981, 1993): two dimensions of attention:
  • Width of attention: broad vs narrow
  • Direction of attention: internal vs external

Four Types of Attentional Focus

• Width: broad vs narrow
• Direction: external vs internal
• Four types:
  1. Broad-External
  2. Broad-Internal
  3. Narrow-External
  4. Narrow-Internal
• Switching between types depending on the task and phase of performance.

Attentional Focus: Descriptions

• Broad-External: scanning environment for multiple cues (e.g., a footballer scanning field).
• Broad-Internal: analyzing and planning (e.g., coach planning tactics).
• Narrow-External: focusing on one or two external cues (e.g., hitting a ball in baseball).
• Narrow-Internal: focusing on internal cues and mentally practicing (e.g., feeling arm movement in passing).

Action Effect Hypothesis (External Focus)

• External focus benefits performance: actions are best planned and controlled by their intended effects.
• Focus on intended outcome (external focus) rather than the movement itself to avoid “paralysis by analysis.”

Reducing Attention Demands with Skill Acquisition

• Automation: high-level skills become automated and require less attention.
• As a junior performer, excessive internal dialogue (staying still, positioning) slows decision-making and interceptive actions.

Visual Selective Attention

• Visual Search: directing visual attention to locate relevant cues in the environment.
• Active search: guided by intentions/goals.
• Passive attention: drawn by distinctive cue features in the environment.
• Question: Do we visually select cues based on action intentions?

Do Eye Movements Equal Visual Attention?

• Eye movement (point of gaze) often accompanies visual attention, but attention can be allocated to cues in peripheral vision without direct gaze.
• You cannot move the eyes without shifting attention.

Experts: Where Do They Look?

• Point of gaze changes across phases of the tennis serve.
• Expertise is sport- and context-specific (e.g., patterns observed in Magill & Anderson, 2021).

Visual Search and Action Preparation

• Visual search helps prepare the motor control system for effective action by contributing to:
  1. What to do (action selection)
  2. How to do it (constraining action to cues, adjusting speed/force/angle)
  3. When to initiate action (timing)

Summary – Attention

• Attention is limited; central and/or multiple-resource theories explain multitasking limits.
• Cognitive effort is required when paying attention; higher effort slows action preparation.
• Performing multiple tasks at once increases attentional load; practice and skill learning reduce attention demands.
• Visual selective attention is essential for cue identification/recognition and for action preparation.

Review Questions – Attention (conceptual cues)

• Describe key differences between central-resource and multiple-resource theories of attention capacity.
• Describe how dual-task procedures measure attention demands.
• How is visual search used to optimize action and performance? (three ways)

Memory, Forgetting and Strategies

• Key concept: Memory storage and retrieval are central to motor skill learning and performance.

Memory Structure

• Definition (Tulving, 1985): Memory is the capacity to benefit from past experiences.
• Components (models): Sensory Memory; Working Memory (STM); Long-Term Memory (LTM).
• Memory Functions: Storing information; Retrieving information.

Stages of Memory

• Sensory Memory: unlimited capacity; duration < 1 second; processes sensory information and passes relevant items to STM.
• Short-Term Memory (STM): temporary storage; capacity 7 ext{ items} \n±
  2; duration 20{-}30 ext{ seconds}; requires rehearsal to transfer to LTM.
• Long-Term Memory (LTM): permanent store; unlimited capacity and duration; includes retrieval and recall challenges.

Memory Stages – Details

• Sensory Memory: initial filter; sorts through information to pass to STM.
• STM (Working Memory): integrates current environment with LTM; limited duration and capacity; requires rehearsal to persist.
• LTM: stores experiences and knowledge; basis of learning; recall/recognition can be challenging; unlimited capacity and duration.

Working Memory (WM) Sub-systems (Short-Term/Working Memory)

• Phonological loop: verbal information storage for short periods.
• Visuospatial sketchpad: visual/spatial information storage.
• Central executive: coordinates information in WM and retrieves from LTM; integrates with information processing.

Working Memory Characteristics

• Duration: ~20–30 seconds without rehearsal.
• Capacity: ~7 items (+/- 2).
• Chunking: organizing input into meaningful units increases effective capacity.
• Example: remembering a phone number by chunking digits.
• Experts often show greater WM capacity and can integrate new information more readily with existing knowledge; WM differences can be task or context-specific.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

• Lifelong memory; plasticity persists beyond early life.
• Access to information is critical (the retrieval cue).

Types of Memory in LTM

• Procedural memory: knowledge of how to perform activities (motor skills), often non-declarative.
• Semantic memory: general world knowledge and concepts.
• Episodic memory: personally experienced events and experiences.
• LTM stores different types of memory and knowledge; supports learning and application.

Motor Control and Knowledge in LTM

• Two types of knowledge in LTM:
  • Declarative knowledge (episodic and semantic): conscious; verbalizable; describes what to do.
  • Non-declarative knowledge (procedural memory): unconscious; knowledge about actual performance; difficult to verbalize.
  • Interactions between declarative and non-declarative knowledge influence performance.

The Link Between Attention and Memory in Performance

• After information is processed, selective attention helps determine what gets stored for future use.
• Short-term sensory store passes relevant information to STM for conscious analysis.
• Irrelevant information is discarded to prevent overload.

Selective Attention and Memory (Illustrative)

• A good performer can focus on an important aspect of their skill while ignoring distractions.
• Encoding and selective attention help filter information that will be most useful in retrieval later.

Memory Experiment – Illustrative Practice

• A 30-second reading phase followed by 30-second recall task tests short-term memory for lists.
• Example practice lists used in demonstrations (e.g., a list of random words or objects) to illustrate forgetting and retrieval.

Memory – Types of Tests and Forgetting Mechanisms

• Explicit memory tests: recall rules of a game or describe procedures.
  • Recall test: reproduce information from memory.
  • Recognition test: select correct options (e.g., multiple-choice).
• Implicit memory tests: demonstrate knowledge through performance without explicit recall.

Why Do We Forget? Mechanisms

1) Trace Decay: memory fades over time if not rehearsed.
2) Interference Theory:

• Proactive interference: prior information interferes with learning new information (e.g., confusing badminton with tennis).
• Retroactive interference: new information acquired during the retention interval interferes with earlier memories (e.g., learning netball today interferes with golf practice yesterday).

Strategies to Enhance Movement Memory

1. Meaningfulness of movement: relate to known concepts; use visual imagery; use verbal cues.
   • Example cues: visualizing end-points or key spatial positions; e.g., for breaststroke, visualize the “scoop the bowl” cue.
2. Skill characteristics: continuous skills are easier to remember.
3. Intention to remember / focus: deliberate focus on remembering.
4. Organizing sequences (chunking): grouping movements into chunks.
5. Practice relationship: closer alignment between practice conditions and performance enhances memory.

Review Questions – Memory

• Describe procedural, episodic, and semantic memory as components of long-term memory.
• Discuss two forgetting mechanisms (e.g., trace decay; proactive and retroactive interference).
• Describe three strategies to enhance movement memory.

Memory Experiment – Examples from Slides

• Typical memory tasks involve listing items (e.g., words, objects, or cues) and testing recall after a short interval to illustrate encoding, storage, and retrieval processes.
• Demonstrates how attention and encoding quality affect memory performance.

Connections Across Attention and Memory

• Attention filters information for STM, enabling selective encoding into memory.
• Memory performance depends on how well information is attended to, encoded, rehearsed, and retrieved in relevant contexts.
• Skill learning reduces cognitive load over time as automatization increases, freeing attention for higher-level decision-making and adaptation.

Practical and Ethical Implications (Applied Insights)

• Training design should consider attentional load; gradual introduction of tasks helps prevent overload and choking under pressure.
• External focus cues can improve performance and reduce attentional demands during skill acquisition.
• Visual search and cue identification support more efficient action selection and timing in sport and rehabilitation.
• Understanding memory processes helps in structuring practice schedules, using chunking and rehearsal strategies to enhance retention.

Quick Formulas and Key Numbers

• Short-term memory capacity: 7 \,\pm\,2 items
• Short-term memory duration: 20{-}30\ \text{s}
• Sensory memory duration: < 1\ \text{s}
• Working memory duration without rehearsal: \approx 20{-}30\ \text{s}
• Visual search and cue identification are influenced by whether cues are external vs internal and broad vs narrow focus.