Political Science Final

🏛 Powers of the President

• Formal Powers: Powers written directly into the Constitution (ex: vetoing laws, appointing officials, commanding the military).

• Informal Powers: Powers not listed but developed over time (ex: issuing Executive Orders, bargaining with Congress, using media influence).

• Executive Order: A directive by the president that has the force of law without needing Congress’s approval.

🏛 Presidential Succession

• First 5 in line: Vice President → Speaker of the House → President pro tempore of the Senate → Secretary of State → Secretary of the Treasury.

• 25th Amendment: Sets presidential succession rules; passed after JFK's assassination to clarify what happens if the president can't serve.

🏛 Electoral Process

• The president is elected through the Electoral College, where citizens vote for electors who pledge to a candidate.

• This system balances power between big and small states rather than using a direct popular vote.

🏛 Vice President’s Duties

• Succeed the president if needed.

• Preside over the Senate and cast tie-breaking votes (Majority rules after a vote).

• Advise the president and represent the U.S. at events.

🧠 Why Limited Presidential Powers?

• Framers feared a king-like ruler and wanted Checks and Balances.

• Created a system where presidential power is strong but limited by Congress, courts, and the Constitution.

⚖ Judicial Branch Concepts

• Judicial Restraint: Judges avoid making new policy; they stick closely to the Constitution and laws.

• Judicial Activism: Judges take bold actions to expand rights or change policies, especially when lawmakers fail to act.

• Jurisdiction: The authority of a court to hear and decide a specific case.

• Majority Opinion: The official decision of the Court supported by more than half of the justices.

• Dissenting Opinion: Written by a justice who disagrees with the majority, explaining their reasons.

📜 Rights and Freedoms

• Civil Liberties: Basic freedoms that limit government power over individuals (ex: free speech, religion, privacy).

• Habeas Corpus: The right to be brought before a judge and know why you're being held; protects against unlawful imprisonment.

• Civil Rights: Protections that guarantee equal treatment and prevent discrimination (ex: voting rights, ending segregation).

🏡 Segregation Types and Housing Discrimination

• De Jure Segregation: Legal separation enforced by laws (ex: Jim Crow laws requiring separate facilities for Black and white people).

• De Facto Segregation: Separation based on housing patterns, income, or social habits, not law (ex: segregated neighborhoods in cities like New York).

• Redlining: Discriminatory practice where banks denied loans to minority neighborhoods, trapping people in poverty and preventing homeownership.

🧑‍⚖ Important Figures

• Thurgood Marshall: First African American Supreme Court Justice; successfully argued Brown v. Board of Education.

• Sandra Day O’Connor: First woman Supreme Court Justice; known for her moderate and swing votes.

🗳 Major Legislation

• Voting Rights Act of 1965: Outlawed discriminatory practices like literacy tests; protected the right to vote for minorities and gave federal oversight to elections in states with a history of discrimination.

📚 Important Court Cases

• Plessy v. Ferguson (1896): Allowed "separate but equal" racial segregation under law.

• Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Overturned Plessy; ruled that segregated schools were inherently unequal.

• Burwell v. Hobby Lobby (2014): Allowed closely-held corporations to deny contraception coverage based on owners' religious beliefs, expanding corporate religious rights.

• Tinker v. Des Moines (1969): Protected students' right to free speech in schools as long as it did not disrupt learning.

🔥 Recent Current Event

• In April 2025, the Supreme Court blocked an attempt to deport Venezuelan migrants without due process, reinforcing civil liberties protections.

• This shows the Judicial Branch actively checking executive actions and defending individual rights.

📜 Founding Ideas

• Federalist 78 (by Alexander Hamilton): Explained that the judicial branch would be the weakest, but must have judicial review to protect people's rights.

• Protecting innocent people from government injustice (even if guilty people go free) is a core idea behind the American legal system.