Rehabilitation and Resettlement Policy, Sustainable development, Global Warming and Climate Change

Here is a detailed explanation of Rehabilitation and Resettlement Policy, Sustainable Development, and Global Warming and Climate Change, based on the information provided in the sources:

Rehabilitation and Resettlement Policy

The sources highlight the issue of development-induced displacement (DID) in India and the need for effective rehabilitation and resettlement policies.

Development-Induced Displacement (DID):

• DID is a problem in India from the pre-independence era to the present.

• The pattern of development in India during the latter half of the 20th century, prioritising industrial projects like massive dams (e.g., Hirakud, Nagarjuna Sagar, Bhakra Nangal, Damodar Valley), steel plants, and heavy electricals, has resulted in displacement. Jawaharlal Nehru referred to such projects as "the temples of modern India".

• Displaced persons (DPs) are those forced to leave their habitat when their homestead is acquired for development projects.

• Project affected people (PAPs) are those deprived of their livelihood when their lands and other assets are acquired, even if they remain geographically in the same place. This can also include people indirectly displaced when waste disposal from projects affects land fertility and health, forcing them to move.

• The definition of displacement has broadened to include restricted access to protected areas and dislocation beyond geographical relocation, encompassing occupational and economic impacts.

• Unofficial studies estimate a minimum of 21,300,000 DPs between 1951 and 1990. Official figures are often underestimates.

• The socio-economically deprived, namely Dalits and tribals, are often the worst sufferers of displacement.

Inadequate Resettlement Practices:

• Less than a third of DPs have been even partially resettled.

• There has been a lack of a comprehensive database of displaced and rehabilitated people.

• There is widespread ignorance about the problem of displacement.

• DPs and PAPs belong to a wide range of social strata.

• Multiple displacement arises from the absence of long-term planning.

• It is nearly impossible to measure the pain and distress of displacement-affected people.

• Four aspects of inadequate resettlement practices in independent India are highlighted.

Policy Responses and Challenges:

• Historically, colonial laws like the Regulation I of 1824 (Bengal), Act XXII of 1834 (Assam), and the Calcutta law of 1824 aimed to ease land acquisition for various purposes, culminating in the Land Acquisition Act, 1894.

• Some states, like Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, and Maharashtra, have their own rehabilitation laws, and Orissa and Rajasthan have policies for water resource DPs.

• National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) and Coal India formulated their own policies in the 1990s.

• The Central Government has been attempting to draft a national policy since 1985, resulting in a draft national rehabilitation policy and the Land Acquisition (Amendments) Bill in 1998 (aimed at easier land acquisition).

• A National Policy on Resettlement and Rehabilitation for Project Affected Families was introduced in February 2004, and a draft policy followed in 2006. However, its acceptability is debatable. This policy is discussed in detail in Unit 11 (mentioned in source).

• It is argued that we need a displacement and rehabilitation policy (D&R) rather than just a resettlement and rehabilitation policy (R&R), as the latter takes displacement for granted.

• There is a need to change legal structures and provisions, including the Forest Conservation Act and constitutional provisions, to align with the fundamental rights of tribals, Dalits, backwards, and peasants.

• People's struggles across the country have provided a framework for a just resettlement and rehabilitation policy. Key aspects include considering the public purpose and manageability of displacement.

• It is crucial to consider the impact on livelihoods, especially fisheries, forests, and land, in the vicinity of projects.

• There is a call to explore resource mapping and alternatives to destructive large-scale projects, emphasizing small-scale, sustainable, and eco-friendly projects that empower communities.

• The focus of projects often remains on economic efficiency rather than on the people paying the price of displacement. Those sacrificing assets should be recognised as stakeholders.

Sustainable Development

Sustainable development has gained international recognition with increasing ecological understanding.

Definition and Key Concepts:

• The Brundtland Commission defined sustainable development as "development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs".

• It encompasses two key concepts:

  • The concept of "need," particularly the essential needs of the world's poor, which should be given overriding priority.

  • The idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organisation on the environment's ability to meet present and future needs.

• The goals of economic and social development must be defined in terms of sustainability in all countries, regardless of their development status or economic orientation.

• Interpretation of sustainable development may vary, but it must share general features and stem from a consensus on the basic concept and a broad strategic framework.

• Development involves a progressive transformation of economy and society. Physical sustainability requires attention to changes in access to resources and the distribution of costs and benefits.

• Ensuring environmental sustainability is the 7th Millennium Development Goal, requiring sustainable development patterns and preserving the productive capacity of natural ecosystems for future generations.

• Sustainability from a human development perspective ensures that access to opportunities is available not only for the present but also for future generations. This necessitates resource use without degrading the environment to ensure improvements are lasting and can expand.

Ecology and Environmental Concerns:

• The interrelationship between ecology, environment, and development is crucial.

• Development can have significant consequences on ecology and the environment, including degradation, social pollution, and destruction of forests.

• Rapid growth of export-oriented resource utilisation, often fueled by international finance in Third World countries, can lead to debt traps and ecological degradation.

• Contemporary social theory increasingly focuses on the causes and consequences of ecological crises, the relationship between humans and nature, and the impact of human actions.

• Ecology movements challenge the environmentally destructive nature of modern industrial/capitalist production and consumption. These movements often emerge from conflicts over natural resources and people's right to survival, particularly where resources are already used for basic needs.

• Ecology movements have questioned the validity of dominant concepts and indicators of development when resource and energy-intensive production undermines the survival of the majority while benefiting a minority.

• Several development projects, like the Tehri Hydroelectric Project, have raised ecological concerns due to potential destruction of ecosystems (in this case, the Himalayan geosystem).

• Water pollution from industrial effluents, sewage wastes, and agricultural pollutants (fertilizers, pesticides) damages human beings, plants, and animals.

• Soil pollution can result from nuclear explosions and agricultural activities (overuse of inorganic manure and pesticides).

• Destruction of forests through large-scale deforestation by forest contractors leads to floods, soil erosion, silting of rivers, contraction of agricultural areas, and desertification.

• Pollution in general affects human health directly and indirectly.

Internationalisation:

• Environmental concerns are increasingly internationalised, leading to a modification of the "doctrines and dogmas of inalienable national sovereignty" to accommodate international environmental cooperation.

• International environmental policy aims to protect and restore the cultural and ecological distinctiveness of nations through cooperation.

• Debates on ecological issues at the global level, particularly concerning sustainable development, often involve the North-South divide and hierarchy.

• Disagreements persist on the causes of global environmental degradation and the mechanisms to address ecological crises. Some argue underdevelopment causes damage, while others point to the industrial progress of developed nations.

• Third World countries demand that industrialised nations subsidise their efforts to replace polluting industries.

• Responsibilities for global crises like ozone layer depletion and the greenhouse effect remain contentious.

• Natural resource management and biodiversity conservation have become major priorities for countries and donor agencies.

Social Theory Perspectives:

• Social theorists like Giddens, Habermas, and Beck emphasise the need for the democratisation of state power and civil society to address environmental issues.

• Giddens sees environmental politics as a response to ecological threats and mobilised by ideal values.

• Habermas views ecology movements as a response of the life-world to its colonisation, arguing that capitalism is a primary cause of environmental degradation.

• Beck advocates for an ecological democracy where research agendas and development plans are open for discussion, with effective legal and institutional controls.

• These theorists highlight the limitations of predominantly representative democracy in achieving environmental sustainability and suggest a need for more participatory approaches.

Global Warming and Climate Change

Global warming and climate change are significant global issues with close links to development and human health.

Global Warming and Greenhouse Gases (GHGs):

• There has been a striking change in average temperatures globally in recent times. The 1990s were the warmest decade, with 1998 being the warmest year recorded so far.

• Global warming is primarily caused by increasing human activity leading to a rise in the release of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases, which trap heat in the atmosphere.

• Greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).

• CFCs also cause the depletion of the ozone layer, increasing incoming ultraviolet radiation.

• Major sources of GHG emissions from human activities include industrial emissions, vehicular emissions, burning of forests, and refrigeration.

• Estimates suggest global mean surface temperatures will rise by about 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels by 2030 and about 4 degrees by 2090. This will lead to variations in climatic patterns, including floods, cyclones, storms, water scarcity, and desertification.

• Melting glaciers, soil erosion, and rising sea levels are also consequences.

Indicators of Climate Change:

• Melting of glaciers: Glaciers worldwide are melting rapidly, which could lead to severe water crises for future generations.

• Rise in sea levels: Due to rising global temperatures and melting glaciers, sea levels are projected to rise between 9 cm and 29 cm by 2030 and between 28 cm and 96 cm by 2090.

• Acid rains: Burning fossil fuels produces sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, which form harmful pollutants in the atmosphere, returning as acid rain, fog, or snow. This washes away soil nutrients, causes water pollution, harms plants and aquatic ecosystems, and damages buildings.

• Ozone layer depletion: CFCs and other industrial chemicals containing chlorine and bromine damage the ozone layer, which protects the earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation.

Climate Change Convention 1992:

• Climate change, according to the UN, is "a change of climate that is attributed to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere".

• The Climate Change Convention aimed to stabilise GHG emissions and laid down general commitments for all state parties, including limiting emissions, gathering information, developing mitigation and adaptation plans, and cooperating in research.

• The convention categorised state parties into Annex I (industrial states, OECD, economies in transition) and Annex II (OECD states), with different levels of commitments to reduce GHG emissions.

• The convention built on earlier international efforts like the Stockholm Conference 1972 and the first World Climate Conference in Geneva 1979. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was established in 1988 to assess climate change issues.

The Kyoto Protocol and Other Meetings:

• The Kyoto Protocol (1997) was an international treaty under the UNFCCC that set legally binding commitments for Annex I countries to reduce GHG emissions. Around 187 countries signed and ratified it.

• The protocol's primary objectives included a commitment to reduce GHGs by Annex I countries with realistic targets for other members.

• The Doha Meet 2012 focused on five aspects of climate change: adaptation, finance, mitigation, technology, and loss and damage.

• The Doha Climate Gateway extended the Kyoto Protocol until 2020 but with limited scope as some major emitters did not participate.

Impact on Human Health:

• Climate change has significant impacts on human health.

• Extreme weather events like floods and droughts can lead to injuries, displacement, and food and water scarcity.

• Changes in temperature and rainfall patterns can increase the spread of vector-borne diseases like malaria and dengue fever.

• Heat waves can cause deaths due to heatstroke, respiratory diseases, and dehydration, with the elderly and children being most vulnerable.

• Air pollution, exacerbated by climate change, can worsen respiratory illnesses and weaken the immune system.

• Uncertain climatic conditions can trigger epidemics.

• Increased ultraviolet radiation due to ozone depletion raises the risk of skin cancer and affects the immune system.

• Bush fires release harmful chemicals, causing respiratory problems and water pollution.

• Acid rain can pollute soil and water, making food unfit for consumption and affecting internal organs.

• Disappearing ice caps and water sources, and damage to coastal zones and coral reefs, threaten food security and livelihoods.

Mitigating Global Warming in India:

• India needs to evolve a policy to sustain its resources for future generations, considering the global action on climate change.

• The National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) outlines measures for adaptation and mitigation.

• Promoting cleanliness and proper waste management through initiatives like the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan can contribute.

• Increasing solar energy capacity through the National Solar Mission aims to reduce dependence on fossil fuels. India is also exploring nuclear energy as a carbon dioxide-free source, aiming for 25% of power from nuclear plants by 2050.

• Solar energy, being a rich renewable source, is crucial for India, requiring cost-effective technologies and innovations. The government encourages its generation and related research.

• Using less energy from fossil fuels and switching to cleaner burning fuels like natural gas can help reduce acid rain.

• Minimising acidity in soil through the use of powdered limestone is another mitigation strategy.

• Educating people about global warming and promoting changes in production and consumption patterns are essential.

In summary, the sources provide a detailed overview of development-induced displacement and the need for comprehensive rehabilitation and resettlement policies in India, the definition and multifaceted aspects of sustainable development encompassing ecological and social dimensions, and the causes, impacts, and mitigation efforts related to global warming and climate change on a global scale with specific relevance to India.