AP US History Unit 6 Review Flashcards heilmer

Rise of Industrial Capitalism

• By the end of this period, America becomes the leading industrial power in the world, driven by technological innovation, abundant natural resources, and a growing labor force. This transformation led to significant economic and social changes.

Railroads

• Massive extension of the railroad system leads to a national market for goods, connecting disparate regions and enabling the efficient transportation of raw materials and finished products.

• Miles of railroads grew fivefold after the Civil War, a testament to the rapid expansion and investment in this vital infrastructure.

• Railways encouraged:- Mass production from manufacturers, who could now reach wider markets.

  • Mass consumption among consumers, who had access to a greater variety of goods.

• Railways facilitated westward expansion by connecting the East and West, opening up new territories for settlement and economic development.

• Government support:- Federal government provided land grants and loan subsidies to private railroad corporations, incentivizing construction and expansion.

  • 170,000,000 acres given away for railroad projects, demonstrating the scale of government involvement.

• Four new transcontinental railroads were built:- Nebraska to California (e.g., Union Pacific-Central Pacific).

  • New Orleans to Los Angeles (e.g., Southern Pacific).

  • Kansas City to Los Angeles (e.g., Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe).

  • Minnesota to Washington (e.g., Northern Pacific).

Panic of 1893

• About a quarter of railroads filed for bankruptcy due to overexpansion and financial mismanagement, triggering a broader economic crisis.

• Bankers took control, leading to regional monopolies as they consolidated failing lines, increasing their influence over the industry.

• By 1900, two-thirds of railroad companies controlled by seven entities, illustrating the concentration of power in the hands of a few.

Bessemer Process

• New process enabled manufacturers to produce high-quality steel in huge quantities, revolutionizing construction, manufacturing, and transportation.

• Henry Bessemer discovered blasting air through molten iron yields stronger steel, a breakthrough that dramatically reduced production costs and improved quality.

Andrew Carnegie and Vertical Integration

• Andrew Carnegie rose to the top of the steel industry through innovation, efficiency, and strategic business practices.

• Pioneered vertical integration: one company controls every stage of manufacturing, ensuring control over costs and supply chains. This eliminated reliance on intermediaries and maximized profits.

• Carnegie's company controlled everything from mining iron ore to delivering the final product, a comprehensive approach that set a new standard for industrial organization.

John D. Rockefeller and Horizontal Integration

• John D. Rockefeller's company, Standard Oil, controlled 90% of the oil industry by the 1880s, a dominant position achieved through aggressive business tactics and strategic acquisitions.

• Employed horizontal integration: buying out competitors to eliminate competition, consolidating market share and stifling rivals.

Laissez-faire Economics

• Carnegie and Rockefeller success due to extreme laissez-faire capitalism, which allowed them to operate with minimal government intervention, but also led to concerns about monopolies and unfair practices.

• Laissez-faire: government is hands-off regarding business enterprise, allowing market forces to dictate economic outcomes, but also potentially leading to exploitation and inequality.

• Rooted in Adam Smith's writings, who argued against mercantilism, advocating for individual economic decision-making guided by supply and demand. Smith's "invisible hand" was meant to promote efficiency and prosperity through free competition.

• Competition, crucial for Smith's system, was undermined by monopolies created by figures like Rockefeller, raising questions about the sustainability of laissez-faire principles in an industrial age.

Social Darwinism

• Application of biological Darwinism (survival of the fittest) to society, justifying wealth inequality and arguing against efforts to redistribute wealth or assist the poor.

• Argued that wealth concentration in the hands of the fittest benefited everyone, as these individuals were best positioned to drive innovation and economic growth, a controversial and often criticized viewpoint.

Andrew Carnegie's Gospel of Wealth

• Argued that wealthy individuals had a duty to invest wealth into society through philanthropic works, promoting education, arts, and infrastructure, rather than hoarding or squandering their fortunes.

• Carnegie donated 350,000,000 to build libraries and concert halls, funding cultural institutions that benefited communities across the country.

Sherman Antitrust Act (1890)

• Passed to address monopolization but was vaguely worded, making it difficult to enforce and subject to legal challenges. Addressed concerns about the growing power of trusts and monopolies.

• Made monopolizing an entire market illegal, but lacked specific provisions and definitions, hindering its effectiveness.

• Few convictions or trusts busted up as a result of the act, highlighting the challenges in regulating powerful business interests.

Societal Changes Due to Industrial Growth

Class Divisions

• Raised standard of living for most, but sharply divided classes, creating vast disparities in wealth and opportunity.

• New millionaires like Carnegie and Rockefeller belonged to the elite class, enjoying unprecedented wealth and influence.

• Growing middle class:- Required a new kind of work requiring white collar workers, such as clerks, accountants, and professionals.

  • Salesmen and managers, who facilitated distribution and coordination in expanding businesses.

• Laboring class:- Wages barely sustainable, long hours, six days a week, making it difficult for families to escape poverty.

  • Women and children worked in factories to support families, often in dangerous and exploitative conditions. Child labor became a significant social issue.

  • Punishing work environment, with high rates of injury and illness.

Labor Unions

• Factory, railroad, and mining work were dangerous and exhausting, leading to worker discontent and calls for reform.

• Significant injuries and premature deaths were common, highlighting the human cost of industrialization.

• Corporations had power in negotiations due to influx of immigrants willing to work for low wages, undermining workers' bargaining power.

• Workers formed labor unions to gain power:- Up to a million members, representing a significant portion of the industrial workforce.

• Tactics included strikes, boycotts, and collective bargaining to demand better pay and working conditions.

Great Railroad Strike of 1877

• Railroad companies cut wages during a recession, sparking widespread protests and unrest.

• Workers went on strike in 11 states, disrupting transportation and commerce across the country.

• Shut down 60% of nation's railroads, demonstrating the power of collective action.

• President Hayes sent in troops to quell violence; 100 people killed, highlighting the government's willingness to suppress labor unrest.

• Employers improved wages and working conditions in some cases, but the strike also led to increased repression and anti-union sentiment.

Pullman Strike

• Pullman Company (rail car manufacturer) cut wages, exacerbating economic hardship for workers.

• Union workers fired when they negotiated for higher wages, leading to further escalation of tensions.

• Eugene V. Debs (American Railroad Union leader) directed members not to work on trains with Pullman cars, a move that crippled rail traffic.

• Railroad owners linked Pullman cars to mail trains, turning the strike into a federal issue.

• Debs and other leaders jailed for hindering rail traffic of federally supported trains, effectively breaking the strike.

• Union movement faltered in the aftermath, facing increased opposition from employers and the government.

Overall

• Large corporations often had power and backing of the federal government, making it difficult for workers to challenge their authority.

• People began to realize a better balance was required between employers and employees, leading to calls for labor reform and regulation.

Major Unions

Knights of Labor

• Became public in 1881, advocating for broad social and economic reforms.

• National in scope and open to all laborers, including black people and women, a progressive stance for the time.

• Goals: abolish child labor and destroy trusts, reflecting a commitment to social justice.

• Had over 700,000 members at its height, demonstrating its widespread appeal.

• Compromised after Haymarket Square Riot in 1886:- Bomb exploded during protest for an eight-hour workday, creating a climate of fear and suspicion.

  • Associated with anarchists, not affiliated with Knights of Labor, but the association damaged the union's reputation.

  • Americans associated bombing with Knights of Labor, leading to membership decline and the waning of its influence.

American Federation of Labor (AFL)

• Association of craft unions led by Samuel Gompers, focusing on practical goals like higher wages and better working conditions.

• Over a million members by 1901, representing a significant force in the labor movement.

• Crusade for higher wages and better working conditions through collective bargaining and strategic strikes.

• Wouldn't have real success until the Progressive Era, when labor reforms gained broader support.

Immigration in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century

• US population tripled, partly due to 16,000,000 immigrants, transforming American society and culture.

• Mainly Europeans (Irish, Scandinavian, German), seeking new opportunities and escaping hardship.

• Reasons for immigration:- Poverty in their home countries.

  • Overcrowding in European cities.

  • Religious persecution and political unrest.

• America perceived as a land of liberty and opportunity, attracting migrants from around the world.

Backlash to Immigration

Labor Unions

• Opposed immigrants because they worked for cheap, driving down wages and undermining union efforts.

• Employers used them to keep wages low and replace striking workers, exacerbating tensions between labor and management.

Nativists

• Policy of protecting the interests of native-born individuals, often at the expense of immigrants. This sentiment fueled discriminatory practices and policies.

• American Protective Association - anti-Catholic:- Millions of Irish, Italian, and Polish immigrants were Catholic, making them targets of nativist prejudice. The APA sought to restrict Catholic influence and immigration.

Social Darwinists

• Believed immigrants, especially Irish, were racially inferior and would degrade the gene pool, a pseudoscientific justification for discrimination and exclusion.

• Irish received hatred and vitriol similar to the black population, facing systemic discrimination and prejudice.

Westward Migration

• Starting in 1865, Americans pushed westward for self-sufficiency and independence, driven by the promise of land and opportunity.

• Frontier nearly settled by the end of the nineteenth century, marking a significant turning point in American history.

Chinese Immigration

• Many Chinese migrated for the 1848 gold rush and subsequent economic opportunities.

• Nativists pressured Congress to act due to growing Chinese population, fueled by racial prejudice and economic competition.

Chinese Exclusion Act (1882)

• Barred further Chinese immigration, a discriminatory measure that had long-lasting consequences.

• First immigration law targeting a specific race or nationality, setting a precedent for future restrictions.

Cattle Trade

• Metric buttload of cattle in the Great Plains, providing a valuable commodity for Eastern markets.

• Railroads into Kansas facilitated cattle trade in Eastern markets, enabling the efficient transport of beef to growing urban centers.

• Overgrazing and homesteaders erecting barbed wire fences ended cattle drives in the 1880s, transforming the cattle industry.

Homestead Act of 1862

• Offered 160 acres of free land to those who settled and lived there for five years, encouraging westward expansion and agricultural development.

• Hundreds of thousands of native and immigrant families took up the offer between 1870 and 1900, transforming the landscape of the Great Plains.

• By 1890, the US Census Bureau declared the frontier officially settled, marking the end of an era.

Oklahoma Territory

• Land was given to the Indians by treaty after the Indian removal policies of the 1830s, but this agreement was soon violated.

• They broke the treaty and opened up the Oklahoma territory to settlement as well, displacing Native American tribes and fueling further conflict.

Frederick Jackson Turner

• Wrote "The Significance of the Frontier in American History" (1893), a seminal essay that shaped the understanding of American identity and history.

• Argued that the closing of the frontier was troubling, as westward expansion had been a means of releasing American discontent and fostering democracy.

• The frontier had been a great class leveler, and its loss might lead to class struggles like those in Europe, raising concerns about the future of American society.

Native Americans and the Reservation System

• building of the transcontinental railroads and the metric buttloads of people migrating out California and Oregon and the other Western territories, the federal government came up with something called the reservation system. This system aimed to confine Native American tribes to specific areas.

• Under this system, Indian nations were assigned tracts of land called reservations. These reservations were often of poor quality and insufficient for sustaining their traditional way of life.

• These reservations were a lot smaller than previous land grants from the federal government. This reduction in land significantly impacted the Native American's ability to practice their traditional ways of life, hunting, gathering and agriculture.

• Don't worry, most of the Indians consigned to reservations refused to restrict their movements to these new boundaries and instead followed the buffalo wherever they went. This resistance often led to conflict with the US government and settlers.

• This commitment led to some violence. For example, the Sioux Wars.

Sioux Wars

• Sioux won a decisive victory against the US army in 1866 (Red Cloud's War), demonstrating the military capabilities of Native American tribes.

• In 1871, congress sparked a new fight with the Indian Appropriation Act, which ended federal recognition of the sovereignty of Indian nations and therefore nullified all previous treaties made between the two parties. This act undermined the legal rights of Native American tribes and paved the way for further land grabs.

• That act led to another war with the Sioux and a war with the Comanches, which the Americans won. These conflicts resulted in significant loss of life and further displacement of Native American populations.

• Constant pressure of settlers looking for gold and extinction of bison herds led remaining Indians to capitulate to demands of federal government. The destruction of the bison herds, a vital source of food and materials for Native Americans, played a significant role in their subjugation.

Ghost Dance Movement

• Nationwide movement of resistance against encroachment of Americans on Indian land, reflecting a spiritual and cultural revitalization.

• Indians believed that performing the ritualistic ghost dance would cause their ancestors to drive the whites from their lands, offering a message of hope and resistance.

• In December of 1890, with the killing of more than 200 Indian men, women, and children at Wounded Knee, the period of Indian resistance was over. This massacre marked a tragic end to organized Native American resistance and symbolized the devastating impact of US policies.

Assimilationist Movement

• Attempt to end Indian culture by forcing them to assimilate to American values, reflecting a belief in the superiority of American culture.

Dawes Act of 1887

• Broke up tribal organization, undermining the communal structure of Native American societies.

• Divided tribal lands into 160-acre plots, allotting individual parcels to Native American families.

• Offered US citizenship to those who lived there and Americanized themselves, incentivizing assimilation and the abandonment of traditional ways.

Economic Shifts in Agriculture

• Farmers in North and West relied on single cash crops like wheat and corn to sell in national and international markets, making them vulnerable to price fluctuations and economic downturns.

• Farming relied on expensive machinery powered by steam engines like combines, increasing productivity but also driving up costs.

• Effect: Smaller farmers went out of business because they couldn't afford machinery, leading to consolidation and the rise of large-scale farming operations.

• Farmers felt economic pinch due to:- Industrial trusts keeping prices high on manufactured goods, raising the cost of essential supplies.

  • Railroad corporations charging high prices to ship crops, squeezing farmers' profits.

National Grange Movement

• Organized in 1868 as a social and educational collective, providing support and information to farmers.

• Became political and defended farmers against trusts and railroad exploitation, advocating for policies that would protect their interests.

• Lobbied legislators to pass laws against price gouging on railways and granting special privileges to preferred customers, fighting for fair treatment.

Interstate Commerce Act of 1886

• Legally required railroad rates to be reasonable and just, a landmark effort to regulate the railroad industry.

• Established a federal commission (Interstate Commerce Commission) to oversee the process, marking the beginning of federal regulation of interstate commerce.

Urbanization

• By the end of this period, almost 40% of Americans lived in cities, reflecting the shift from an agricultural to an industrial economy. The rapid growth of cities brought both opportunities and challenges.

• hand in hand with industrialization. Industrial centers attracted workers and immigrants, leading to massive population growth in urban areas.

Tenements

• People of the laboring class, especially immigrants, crowded into poorly ventilated, disease-riddled housing developments called tenements, which were often overcrowded and unsanitary. Conditions in these tenements were a major source of social concern.

Suburbanization

• Suburbs: individual houses built outside the city, offering a more spacious and idyllic lifestyle.

• Middle and upper classes largely resettled in suburbs because of:- Abundant land at low cost, making homeownership more accessible.

  • Cheap transportation by rail, allowing residents to commute to work in the city.

Urban Political Parties and Political Machines

• Political machine: Corrupt organization of political bosses and their followers, which controlled city governments through patronage and corruption.

• Tammany Hall in New York City, a famous example, dominated New York City politics for decades.

• Organized and met the needs of businesses and immigrants and the urban poor, providing essential services and support in exchange for political loyalty.

• Helped these people out of an exceeding generosity of heart, but because by handing out favors, the machine expected those that they helped to keep them in power come election day. The distribution of jobs and resources was often used to maintain their grip on power.

Cultural Change

• People, especially middle class, demanded entertainment and leisure, reflecting a changing social landscape and an increased emphasis on recreation.

• Joseph Pulitzer's newspaper, New York World, filled with sensational stories, catering to the public's appetite for entertainment and scandal.

• Theaters became big business with vaudevillian variety shows, offering diverse entertainment options to urban audiences.

• P. T. Barnum put together a traveling circus using the extensive railroad network, bringing entertainment to communities across the country.

• Rise of spectator sports like baseball, football, and boxing, providing opportunities for recreation and community building.

Urban Reform

• Due to nativism, political machinery, unsafe living quarters, and diseases, some people sought reform for those suffering in the cities, addressing the social and economic problems caused by rapid urbanization.

Settlement Houses

• Provided social services to the poor to enrich the neighborhood, offering education, healthcare, and other essential resources.

• Hull House, established by Jane Addams in 1889, taught English to immigrants and pioneered early childhood education, becoming a model for settlement houses across the country.

• Largely led by women, who played a crucial role in social reform movements.

Women's Suffrage

• Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony formed the National American Woman's Suffrage Association (NAWSA) in 1890, uniting various suffrage organizations into a powerful national movement.

• Worked to secure the franchise for women, advocating for equal rights and political representation.

Temperance Movement

• Women in large numbers took up the cause of temperance, or abstinence from alcohol, viewing it as a key to social and moral reform.

• The Women's Christian Temperance Union was formed in 1874, had half a million members by 1898, becoming a major force in the temperance movement.

• Anti Saloon League, established in 1893, aimed to persuade Congress to close down bars and saloons, seeking to eliminate alcohol consumption through legislation.

• Carrie A. Nation: hacked away at beer kegs and liquor casks with a hatchet, employing radical tactics to protest the sale and consumption of alcohol.

Social Gospel

• Preached by more progressive pulpits; Christian principles ought to be applied to right societal wrongs, promoting social justice and equality.

• Protestant preachers crusaded for social justice for the poor, advocating for reforms to address poverty, inequality, and other social problems.

• Encouraged middle-class citizens to solve urban problems as their Christian duty, motivating them to engage in social reform efforts.

Art and Literature

• Right after the Civil War, most of the literature that was published right after the Civil War were really just romanticized hero stories. But during this time, we see the adoption of realism as a vehicle for storytelling. This shift reflected a desire to depict American society more accurately and critically.

• Mark Twain's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn realistically depicted the corruption, violence, and racism of American society, challenging romanticized narratives and promoting social awareness.

• James McNeil Whistler's painting titled Arrangement in Gray and Black depicts his mother sitting there, showcasing a new aesthetic sensibility and a focus on everyday subjects.

• Frank Lloyd Wright pioneered a natural style of architecture sought to incorporate the lines and features of the natural environment, creating buildings that harmonized with their surroundings.

The New South

• Henry Grady (editor of the Atlanta Constitution) promoted a vision of the New South based on economic diversity, industrial growth, and laissez-faire capitalism, seeking to transform the South into a modern industrial economy.

• Some Southern cities grew as industrial centers; Southern states surpassed New England in textiles, demonstrating the potential for economic development in the region.

• Population growth and railroad construction equaled or exceeded any other place in the country, indicating significant economic and demographic changes. Southern states aimed to modernize their infrastructure to facilitate industrial advancements.

• The reality really only occurred in a few isolated places in the South, but this reality only occurred in a few isolated places in the South. Everywhere else, it was still mainly a racially segregated agricultural economy. The promise of the New South was not fully realized due to persistent social and economic inequalities.

Racial Segregation

• Sharecropping: Servitude under a different name, trapping many black farmers in a cycle of debt and poverty.

• Reconstruction ended in 1877, federal troops withdrew protection of emancipated black population, leaving them vulnerable to discrimination and violence.

• Southern society segregated due to ideology of white supremacy, which promoted the belief in the superiority of the white race and the subjugation of black people.

• Plessy v. Ferguson (1896): constitutional to have separate but equal facilities, establishing the legal basis for segregation and Jim Crow laws.

• Result: Jim Crow laws: segregation laws for public places (bathrooms, water fountains, public transportation, etc.), enforcing racial separation and discrimination.

• Blacks prevented from serving on juries; accused blacks sometimes killed by lynch mobs, denying them basic legal rights and subjecting them to racial terror.

Resistance to Inequity

• Ida B. Wells editorialized against lynchings in the system of Jim Crow and had her life threatened and her presses destroyed. So she moved north to continue the resistance. Her activism highlighted the brutality of racial violence and the urgent need for social change.

• Henry Turner started the International Migration Society in 1894, which facilitated the migration of blacks to Africa, seeking refuge from racial persecution and the opportunity to build a new life.

• Booker T. Washington: advocated economic self-sufficiency rather than political equality, believing that economic progress would pave the way for eventual equality.

Politics (Hands-Off and Corrupt)

• Widespread belief in limited government and laissez-faire economics, resulting in minimal regulation of business and the economy.

Major Parties

• Republicans: votes from blacks, middle-class businessmen, and Protestants, representing a diverse coalition of interests.

• Democrats: votes from big city political machines and growing population of immigrants, relying on patronage and support from urban voters.

• Neither party had a strong legislative agenda; politics was a game of winning elections and awarding jobs to faithful party supporters, known as patronage. This system often led to corruption and inefficiency in government.

Three Major Issues

Civil Service

• Practice of party patronage criticized after assassination of President James Garfield, highlighting the dangers of the spoils system.

• Pendleton Act of 1881: Corrected the patronage system for civil service. Created a competitive examination for civil service jobs; those who got the higher scores got the jobs, but resulted in politicians shifting from party faithful to wealthy people for campaign funding. This reform aimed to create a more meritocratic and professional civil service, but also had unintended consequences.

Money

• Farmers and entrepreneurs wanted the money supply expanded to include more paper money in circulation. To borrow more money at lower interest rates and to pay debts with inflated dollars. Later they also advocated for the unlimited coinage of silver. This policy was intended to ease debt burdens and stimulate economic growth.

• Bankers and investors on the other hand rejected this and wanted to keep US currency on the gold standard. And what that means is that the economy only gets as much paper money as can be backed up by the value of the gold stored in US vaults. And the reason why they wanted to stick to the gold standard was because in that case, money is better able to hold its value against inflation. The gold standard was favored by those who valued monetary stability and feared inflation.

Tariffs

• In the 1890s, tariffs provided over half of federal revenue, making them a crucial source of government funding.

• During the Civil War, tariffs were put in place to fund the union effort and to protect American industry, promoting domestic production and reducing reliance on foreign goods.

• After the war, they kinda just let those tariffs sit there. These tariffs had a significant impact on American economy and trade relations.

• Farmers and consumers suffered because American industry benefited from this protection. Tariffs raised the prices of imported goods, benefiting domestic manufacturers but harming consumers and farmers.

• Farmers suffered because other nations enacted retaliatory tariffs, which meant less international sales for their crops. Retaliatory tariffs reduced the demand for American agricultural products in global markets.

• Consumers suffered because tariffs kept the prices of imported goods very high. Tariffs increased the cost of living for many Americans.

Populist Party

• Sought to correct the concentration of economic power held by banks and trusts, advocating for policies that would benefit farmers and laborers.

• Composed the Omaha Platform, which outlined their political and economic reforms, presenting a comprehensive agenda for change.

Omaha Platform Reforms

Political Reforms

• Direct election of senators. Now remember, according to the constitution, senators were to be elected by state legislatures. Populists wanted to put that decision in the hands of the people. This reform aimed to make the Senate more accountable to the public.

• The second political reform they wanted to enact was the use of initiatives and referendums which allowed the people to propose and vote on legislation. These direct democracy measures aimed to empower citizens and bypass political corruption.

Economic Reforms

• Unlimited coinage of silver, a key demand of the Populist movement.

• Graduated income tax, which means the more someone makes, the higher percentage they pay in taxes. This progressive tax system aimed to redistribute wealth and fund government programs.

• Eight-hour workday for laborers, advocating for improved working conditions and a shorter workweek.

Election of 1896

• No Populist candidate ever won a presidential election so By the election of eighteen ninety six, the Democratic Party took up some of the main tenets of Populism into their own platform, the most important being the unlimited coinage of silver, and thus secured much of the populist vote. This strategic move effectively absorbed the Populist movement into the Democratic Party.

• William McKinley (Republican) won, marking the end of the Populist challenge and the beginning of a new era in American politics.

• Buttload of gold was found in Alaska, increasing the money supply. This discovery eased monetary tensions and helped stabilize the economy.

• Gold standard upheld and made the opposing civil rights happy because it had the effect of increasing the supply. The gold standard remained in place, solidifying the financial policies of the Republican Party.

• Everyone was satisfied. The increased gold supply and the end of the silver debate helped to restore confidence in the economy.