Notes on British India (1829-58)

Nearly losing an Empire: The British in India, 1829-58

Key Questions

• Extent of British Control (1829): The British East India Company, established in 1600, evolved into a governing body controlling about 60% of India by the late 1820s. This area included significant territories such as Bengal, Madras, and Bombay. Control was achieved through a combination of military conquest, such as the defeat of local rulers in major battles (e.g., the Battle of Plassey), and alliances with Indian princes. The Company collected an estimated annual revenue of 30 million rupees in the 1830s, with tax rates sometimes reaching 50-70% of agricultural output, which resulted in widespread land alienation among peasants.

  While modern infrastructure such as 6,000 miles of railways and a network of 40,000 miles of roads were introduced in the mid-19th century, they more often served British economic interests than those of the Indian populace. As a result, rural uprisings became more frequent, particularly as heavy taxation and disregard for traditional practices led to widespread dissatisfaction and a lack of legitimacy in British governance. By 1857, it was estimated that there were about 110 million people under British rule in India, increasing scrutiny over British policies and practices among educated Indians, which ultimately set the stage for resistance.

• Clash of Cultures: Influenced by the idea of "the white man’s burden," British ideology positioned them as moral guardians of civilization. In the early 19th century, only about 2% of Indians were literate, and Western education, particularly through the establishment of educational institutions, increasingly educated a new elite. Key figures such as Ram Mohan Roy founded the Brahmo Samaj in 1828, pushing for reformed Hindu practices. His reformist agenda included advocating against sati, leading to its abolition in 1829, yet faced backlash from conservative groups representing traditional interests. Throughout the early 19th century, social reform movements began to emerge, with the growth of forums discussing modernization, ultimately leading to cultural reinterpretation and social revolts across various communities.

• Indian Rebellion of 1857 Causes: The rebellion's triggers included several immediate factors; among them was the introduction of the Enfield rifle and the use of greased cartridges, allegedly made of cow and pig fat—a rumor that ignited anger among both Hindus and Muslims. The Doctrine of Lapse, implemented in 1856, led to the annexation of princely states without direct male heirs, notably the symbolic state of Awadh with its prosperous agriculture, causing significant resentment. Economic policies demanded between 50% to 70% of the farmers' harvest, especially in Awadh where cultivation involved about 4.5 million acres under the British system. This excessive burden led to substantial rural poverty and unrest. An estimated 100,000 Indian soldiers (sepoys) participated in the rebellion, alongside approximately 50,000 unarmed civilians. These pressures culminated in a widespread uprising that marked a significant challenge to British authority in India.

Historical Context

• British East India Company (1600): The East India Company began trading in India in 1600, focusing on valuable commodities such as spices, cotton, and silk. By 1750, it controlled only 3% of India's trade. However, after the pivotal Battle of Plassey in 1757, the Company increased its control. By 1800, its territorial governance expanded to include 60% of the Indian population, approximately 100 million people, with the country’s GDP being approximately $100 billion in today’s figures. The Company’s tax collection rights allowed for revenue collection upwards of 40 million rupees annually by the 1850s, reflecting its powerful administrative overhaul initiated by diwani rights in Bengal. The Company’s military growth, expanding from 5,000 troops to over 100,000, reinforced its transformation into a dominant political force, contributing significantly to British colonial power by the mid-19th century.

• Mughal Empire: At its height in the late 17th century, the Mughal Empire was a formidable economic power, contributing around 25% to 30% of global GDP. The population during this period was approximately 150 million; however, by the early 18th century, the Empire suffered a tremendous decline due to internal conflicts and foreign invasions. The succession crisis following Emperor Aurangzeb's death in 1707 led to fragmentation. By the 1750s, Mughal territorial reach had considerably diminished, falling to about 18% of pre-colonial Indian territories. The emergence of regional powers like the Marathas and Sikhs further complicated the Mughals’ authority, providing the British with opportunities to encroach on disorganized Mughal domains and expand their influence through alliances and direct control.

• Decline of Mughals (18th century): The 18th century was marked by fierce internal strife, primarily from powerful regional groups. The Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 saw the Marathas devastated, leading to decreased power and loss of territory, while the British capitalized on this chaos. Jamaica was annexed by the British Company in 1765, seizing control of revenues from Bengal, which alone accounted for over 50% of the Company’s revenue shortly afterward. The annexation of Awadh in 1856 and the ongoing chaos within Mughal territories were pivotal developments that laid the groundwork for widespread unrest and rebellion against British rule.

Britain’s Early Relationship with India (1600-1829)

• Early Trading Posts: The establishment of fortified trading posts in critical coastal cities such as Bombay (now Mumbai), Madras (now Chennai), and Calcutta (now Kolkata) played a central role in securing British interests. By the early 19th century, these centers functioned not merely as commercial hubs but also vital military outposts, with their populations even exceeding 300,000. The British controlled significant routes for trade in spices and textiles, establishing strategic dominance in the region. For instance, by 1820, Calcutta had become the principal British city in India, accounting for 40% of the Company's revenues which numbered around 50 million rupees, underlining its importance in British imperial strategy.

• Political Alliances: The pivotal Battle of Plassey in 1757 was monumental in establishing British dominance, with British forces under Clive decisively defeating the Nawab of Bengal. This victory directly led to the establishment of British control over Bengal, contributing to around 50% of the Company’s total revenue, which allowed for further expansion of British rule into Northern and Southern India. The British political strategy also involved forging alliances, such as the Treaty of Amritsar in 1846, which secured the Dogra dynasty's support over Kashmir and expanded British political influence, exemplifying their diplomatic maneuvering aligned with military strategy.

• Government Regulation: The Regulating Act of 1773 resulted from mounting pressure to address corruption within the East India Company. It was designed to curb abuses of power by the Company's officials, establishing a system that anticipated greater accountability, with Warren Hastings becoming the first Governor-General of India. It also provided for better governance through the establishment of a Supreme Court, which marked the transition of the Company from a mercantile to a quasi-governmental body, highlighting the evolving dynamics of colonial administration. Legal reforms initiated during this period, such as the 1781 Regulating Act, laid the groundwork for formal administrative structures that came later.

Features of the Indian Subcontinent

• Geography: The geophysical diversity of India greatly influenced British strategic interests. The Indo-Gangetic Plain, one of the world’s most fertile regions, enabled high agricultural productivity, while the Himalayan mountain ranges provided natural barriers against northern invasions, crucial for British military efficiency. River systems like the Ganges were essential for transportation and trade, facilitating troop movements and leading to improved control of territories. In contrast, the Deccan Plateau, characterized by its dry climate and challenging agriculture, posed logistical challenges for British military campaigns, particularly when monsoons affected supply lines, complicating efforts to exert control over the interior regions.

• Religions: The rich tapestry of religious demographics comprises approximately 80% Hindus, 12% Muslims, with Sikhs, Christians, Jains, and Buddhists forming smaller communities. Events such as British missionary efforts, which promoted conversion and education, often created friction with local cultural practices, inciting resistance. Given that British officials often mistook religious practices as superstitions, they imposed reforms with little understanding of local customs, leading to widespread cultural backlash—particularly against initiatives targeting sati and infanticide, which were seen as both intrusive and colonial impositions on Indian societal norms.

• Languages: Linguistic diversity in India is immense, with over 400 distinct languages and numerous dialects spoken across various regions. Predominantly spoken languages include Hindi with about 41% of the population, Bengali at 8.1%, and Telugu at 7.2%, while English served as the medium of administration and facilitated communication. British officials struggled with language barriers, often relying on interpreters, which resulted in misunderstandings that hindered policy implementation. These challenges revealed structural inefficiencies that continued to complicate colonial governance and underscored the importance of considering local contexts in administration.

Challenges in Controlling India

• Complex Diversity: The diverse social fabric of India, characterized by deeply entrenched customs, caste systems, and intricate social networks, posed significant challenges for British governance. British efforts to introduce a monolithic legal framework for social reforms often ignored local customs resulting in fierce resistance. For instance, proposed bans on sati in 1829 revolutionized the social landscape but faced fierce backlash from conservatives, showcasing the limits of British authority. These challenges illustrated the resilience of Indigenous cultural practices, as local leaders often used community organization to mobilize resistance against perceived infringements, complicating the British administrative landscape where understanding local context became critical.

• East India Company’s Role: The Company’s dual identity as a trader and a governing authority often led to public confusion and conflict, demonstrating the contradictions of colonial power. Its exploitative tax policies, demanding up to 70% of agricultural yield, resulted in significant rural discontent, reflected in uprisings that challenged British authority. The Company's entire economic strategy effectively disenfranchised local populations, with a staggering 60% of the rural population living under the poverty line, which instigated resistance movements. This volatile relationship illustrated the increasing severity of discontent and the challenges faced by British officials; many viewed local uprisings as natural responses to colonial rule, calling into question the Company's long-term viability in India.

Nearly losing an Empire: The British in India, 1829-58

Key Questions

• Extent of British Control (1829): The British East India Company, established in 1600, evolved into a governing body controlling about 60% of India by the late 1820s. This area included significant territories such as Bengal, Madras, and Bombay. Control was achieved through a combination of military conquest, including battles such as the Battle of Plassey (1757) and the Siege of Bengal (during the late 1750s), where British forces faced fierce resistance from local rulers. The Company collected an estimated annual revenue of 30 million rupees in the 1830s, with tax rates sometimes reaching 50-70% of agricultural output, leading to widespread land alienation among peasants.

  While modern infrastructure such as 6,000 miles of railways and a network of 40,000 miles of roads were introduced in the mid-19th century, they more often served British economic interests than those of the Indian populace. As a result, rural uprisings became more frequent, particularly as heavy taxation and disregard for traditional practices led to widespread dissatisfaction and a lack of legitimacy in British governance. By 1857, it was estimated that there were about 110 million people under British rule in India, increasing scrutiny over British policies and practices among educated Indians, ultimately setting the stage for resistance.

• Clash of Cultures: Influenced by the idea of "the white man’s burden," British ideology positioned them as moral guardians of civilization. In the early 19th century, only about 2% of Indians were literate, and Western education, particularly through the establishment of educational institutions, increasingly educated a new elite. Key figures such as Ram Mohan Roy founded the Brahmo Samaj in 1828, pushing for reformed Hindu practices. His reformist agenda included advocating against sati, leading to its abolition in 1829, yet faced backlash from conservative groups representing traditional interests. Throughout the early 19th century, social reform movements began to emerge, with the growth of forums discussing modernization, ultimately leading to cultural reinterpretation and social revolts across various communities.

• Indian Rebellion of 1857 Causes: The rebellion's triggers included several immediate factors; among them was the introduction of the Enfield rifle and the use of greased cartridges, allegedly made of cow and pig fat—a rumor that ignited anger among both Hindus and Muslims. The Doctrine of Lapse, implemented in 1856, led to the annexation of princely states without direct male heirs, notably the symbolic state of Awadh with its prosperous agriculture, causing significant resentment. Economic policies demanding between 50% to 70% of the farmers' harvest, especially in Awadh where cultivation involved about 4.5 million acres under the British system, contributed to substantial rural poverty and unrest. An estimated 100,000 Indian soldiers (sepoys) participated in the rebellion, alongside approximately 50,000 unarmed civilians. These pressures culminated in a widespread uprising that marked a significant challenge to British authority in India. The rebellion involved several key conflicts, including notable sieges such as the Siege of Delhi, which lasted several months and became one of the primary focal points of the uprising.

Historical Context

• British East India Company (1600): The East India Company began trading in India in 1600, focusing on valuable commodities such as spices, cotton, and silk. By 1750, it controlled only 3% of India's trade. However, after the pivotal Battle of Plassey in 1757, where British forces decisively defeated local rulers, the Company increased its control. The subsequent Sieges of various forts and cities throughout India in the late 18th century further consolidated British territorial governance, with the Company's military expanding from 5,000 troops to over 100,000 by the mid-19th century.

• Mughal Empire: At its height in the late 17th century, the Mughal Empire was a formidable economic power, contributing around 25% to 30% of global GDP. The population during this period was approximately 150 million; however, by the early 18th century, the Empire suffered a tremendous decline due to internal conflicts and foreign invasions, including significant military engagements against the Afghans. The succession crisis following Emperor Aurangzeb's death in 1707 led to fragmentation. By the 1750s, Mughal territorial reach had considerably diminished, falling to about 18% of pre-colonial Indian territories. The emergence of regional powers like the Marathas and Sikhs further complicated the Mughals’ authority, providing the British with opportunities to encroach on disorganized Mughal domains and expand their influence through alliances and direct control.

• Decline of Mughals (18th century): The 18th century was marked by fierce internal strife, primarily from powerful regional groups. The Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 saw the Marathas devastated, leading to decreased power and loss of territory, while the British capitalized on this chaos. The annexation of Awadh in 1856, and the ongoing uprisings against British forces, including skirmishes that developed into full-blown sieges, laid the groundwork for widespread unrest and rebellion against British rule.

Britain’s Early Relationship with India (1600-1829)

• Early Trading Posts: The establishment of fortified trading posts in critical coastal cities such as Bombay (now Mumbai), Madras (now Chennai), and Calcutta (now Kolkata) played a central role in securing British interests. By the early 19th century, these centers functioned not merely as commercial hubs but also vital military outposts, with their populations even exceeding 300,000. The British controlled significant routes for trade in spices and textiles, and secured their dominance through a series of military engagements, including sieges that marked their territorial expansion.

• Political Alliances: The pivotal Battle of Plassey in 1757 was monumental in establishing British dominance, where British forces under Clive decisively defeated the Nawab of Bengal. This victory directly led to the establishment of British control over Bengal, contributing to around 50% of the Company’s total revenue, which allowed further expansion of British rule into Northern and Southern India. Post-Battle treaties often followed military victories, such as the Treaty of Amritsar in 1846, which secured the Dogra dynasty's support over Kashmir and expanded British political influence.

• Government Regulation: The Regulating Act of 1773 emerged from rising pressure to address corruption within the East India Company. Through military conflicts and sieges on local forts and cities, the British prepared a transition of the Company towards a quasi-governmental body, establishing a Supreme Court and legal reforms that would later formalize their administrative structures.

Features of the Indian Subcontinent

• Geography: The geophysical diversity of India greatly influenced British strategic interests. The Indo-Gangetic Plain facilitated substantial agricultural yield, while the Himalayan ranges provided natural barriers against northern invasions. River systems like the Ganges supported military logistics, leading to improved control of territories. In contrast, the Deccan Plateau posed logistical challenges for British military campaigns, particularly during monsoons, complicating efforts to exert control over the interior regions.

• Religions: Approximately 80% Hindus and 12% Muslims, the religious demographics were influenced by British missionary efforts, creating friction with local customs. Events such as the British imposition of reforms, perceived as colonial intrusions, often incited resistance.

• Languages: India’s linguistic diversity reveals over 400 distinct languages, with common use of Hindi, Bengali, and Telugu. The reliance of British officials on interpreters often resulted in misinformation that complicated governance.

Challenges in Controlling India

• Complex Diversity: The deeply entrenched customs and social networks posed significant challenges to British governance, often resulting in fierce resistance against proposed reforms, reflecting local resilience against perceived colonial impositions.

• East India Company’s Role: The Company’s exploitation of resources and oppressive tax policies led to rural discontent, with uprisings challenging British authority marked by military engagements including local sieges, underscoring the strains of colonial rule.

Key Battles, Sieges, and Rebellions in British India (1829-1858)

Battles

• Battle of Buxar (1764) (Mentioned for historical context):

• Location: Near Buxar, Bihar.

• Overview: The British East India Company fought against a coalition of Indian rulers, including the Nawab of Bengal, Mir Qasim, and the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II.

• Outcome: The Company’s victory solidified their authority across North India and established the Diwani rights, giving them control over revenue collection in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, which significantly enhanced their economic power.

Sieges

• Siege of Delhi (1857):

• Location: The city of Delhi.

• Overview: A central event in the Indian Rebellion of 1857, this siege began when Indian rebels captured Delhi on May 11, 1857, leading to intense fighting as they sought to dethrone British authority and restore the Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah II.

• Duration: Lasted from May to September 1857.

• Outcome: After several months of fierce resistance, British forces, led by General John Nicholson and later by Major General Henry Havelock, retook Delhi on September 20, 1857. The siege was marked by significant civilian suffering, with thousands of casualties.

• Siege of Kanpur (1857):

• Location: Kanpur (Cawnpore) in northern India.

• Overview: During the 1857 Rebellion, Indian rebels besieged British forces and civilians holed up in a fortified position. The siege was triggered by rising tensions due to heavy taxation, the introduction of unpopular firearms, and mistreatment of sepoys.

• Duration: Lasted from June 6 to July 15, 1857.

• Outcome: The siege resulted in heavy casualties on both sides, with estimates of over 2,000 rebels killed and around 1,200 British and civilian deaths. After the British broke the siege, retaliatory actions led to widespread violence and brutal repressions against suspected rebel sympathizers.

Rebellions

• Indian Rebellion of 1857:

• Scope: A widespread revolt occurring primarily from May 1857 and lasting until approximately 1858, it encompassed various regions, including Awadh, Delhi, and Kanpur, involving both sepoy soldiers and civilian participation.

• Causes: Stemmed from multiple grievances against British policies, including economic exploitation, insensitivity toward local customs (like the use of greased cartridges), and challenges to religious practices that offended both Hindu and Muslim sentiments.

• Outcome: Marked a significant challenge to British authority in India. Its suppression led to the dissolution of the East India Company in 1874 and the establishment of direct British rule over India, known as the British Raj.

• Revolt of 1857 in Awadh:

• Location: Primarily in the Awadh region (Oudh) of present-day Uttar Pradesh.

• Overview: Local leaders and peasant communities rose against British annexation and oppressive taxation policies beginning in May 1857. Key figures included local nobility and former soldiers, contributing to widespread unrest throughout the region.

• Outcome: The uprising faced military suppression but represented a manifestation of deep-rooted resentment against British imperial rule, laying the groundwork for future nationalist movements.

Overall Significance: The battles, sieges, and rebellions during this era illustrate the complex dynamics of colonial rule, resistance, and the eventual transformative impact of these events on India’s path towards independence.