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Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology

• Title: Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology

• Edition: 4th Edition Martini / Bartholomew

• Prepared by: Alan Magid, Duke University

• Focus: The Chemical Level of Organization

• Slides: 1 to 74

• Copyright: 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.

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Matter: Atoms and Molecules

• Atoms: Smallest unit of an element.

• Subatomic Particles:

  • Protons: Positive charge (+)

  • Neutrons: Neutral charge

  • Electrons: Negative charge (-)

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Structure of an Atom

• Nucleus: Contains protons and neutrons.

• Electron Shell: Region around nucleus where electrons are found.

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Structure of an Atom (Continued)

• Atomic Number: Equals the number of protons.

• Atomic Mass: Equals protons + neutrons.

• Isotopes: Variants of an element that have different numbers of neutrons.

• Atomic Weight: Average of isotope abundances.

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Electrons and Their Role

• Electrons surround the nucleus.

• Organized in shells; the outer shell determines chemical properties.

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Atoms and Electron Shells

• Carbon Atom: (6 protons, 6 neutrons, 6 electrons)

• Neon Atom: (10 protons, 10 neutrons, 10 electrons)

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Key Note on Atoms

• All matter is composed of atoms in various combinations, foundational to physiology at the cellular level.

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Chemical Bonds and Compounds

• Atoms bond during chemical reactions, transferring electrons.

• Molecules or compounds form as a result of these reactions.

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Ionic Bonds

• Atoms gain or lose electrons, becoming charged ions.

• Cations: Positively charged ions.

• Anions: Negatively charged ions.

• Opposite charges attract, forming bonds.

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Formation of Ionic Bonds - Example

1. Formation of ions: Sodium atom loses an electron to become Na+.

2. Attraction between Na+ and Cl- leads to ionic compound formation.

3. Resulting compound: Sodium chloride (NaCl).

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Sodium Chloride Crystal

• Visual representation of a sodium chloride crystal with chloride ions (Cl-) and sodium ions (Na+).

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Common Ions in Body Fluids

Cations:

• Na+ (sodium)

• K+ (potassium)

• Ca2+ (calcium)

• Mg2+ (magnesium)

Anions:

• Cl- (chloride)

• HCO3- (bicarbonate)

• HPO4^2- (biphosphate)

• SO4^2- (sulfate)

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Covalent Bonds

• Atoms sharing electrons to complete their outer shell.

• Single Covalent Bond: One pair of shared electrons.

• Double Covalent Bond: Two pairs of shared electrons.

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Covalent Bonds - Models

• Electron-Shell Model: Illustrations of common molecules (e.g., H2, O2, CO2).

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Nonpolar and Polar Covalent Bonds

• Nonpolar Covalent Bonds: Equal sharing of electrons (e.g., carbon-carbon).

• Polar Covalent Bonds: Unequal sharing of electrons (e.g., oxygen-hydrogen).

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Hydrogen Bonds

• Weak attractive forces between neighboring atoms (e.g., polar-bonded hydrogen and polar-bonded oxygen or nitrogen).

• Example: Hydrogen bonds in water molecules.

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Visual Representation of Hydrogen Bonds

• Illustrations showing hydrogen bonding between water molecules.

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Chemical Notation

• Simplified descriptions of compounds, structures, reactions, and ions using chemical shorthand.

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Chemical Reactions and Metabolism

• All metabolic reactions in body consume reactants and produce products.

• These reactions involve breaking or making chemical bonds.

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Basic Energy Concepts

• Work: Movement or change in matter’s physical structure.

• Energy: Ability to do work, categorized as kinetic or potential.

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Energy Types

• Potential Energy: Stored energy (e.g., a leopard in a tree).

• Kinetic Energy: Energy of movement (e.g., a leopard pouncing).

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Types of Chemical Reactions

1. Decomposition: Breaks molecules into smaller pieces.

2. Synthesis: Assembles smaller pieces into larger ones.

3. Exchange: Shuffles pieces between molecules.

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Decomposition Reactions

• Chemical notation: AB ➔ A + B.

• Releases covalent bond energy; includes hydrolysis.

• Catabolism: Sum of all body’s decomposition reactions.

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Synthesis Reactions

• Chemical notation: A + B ➔ AB.

• Absorbs energy; forms new bonds.

• Dehydration Synthesis: Removal of H2O between molecules.

• Anabolism: Sum of synthesis reactions in the body.

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Exchange Reactions

• Chemical notation: AB + CD ➔ AC + BD.

• Involves both decomposition and synthesis.

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Reversible Reactions

• Notation: A + B ⇌ AB.

• Equilibrium: Condition where forward and reverse reactions happen at the same rate.

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Key Note on Energy Exchange

• Energy exchange produces heat, raising local temperatures, but cells cannot capture it for work.

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Enzymes and Reactions

• Activation Energy: Energy needed to start a chemical reaction.

• Catalysts: Substances that lower activation energy, speeding reactions.

• Enzymes: Biological catalysts for cellular reactions.

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Enzyme Activation Energy

• Visual representation of reaction progress with and without enzyme catalysis.

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Types of Reactions: Energy Release/Consumption

• Exergonic: Reactions that release energy (e.g., decomposition).

• Endergonic: Reactions that consume energy (e.g., synthesis).

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Inorganic Compounds

• Nutrients: Essential elements/molecules obtained from diet.

• Metabolites: Molecules synthesized or broken down by chemical reactions in the body.

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Characteristics of Inorganic Compounds

• Inorganic: Smaller molecules lacking carbon and hydrogen (e.g., water, oxygen).

• Organic: Larger molecules rich in carbon and hydrogen (e.g., sugars, proteins, fats).

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Inorganic Gases

• Carbon Dioxide (CO2): Gas produced by metabolism and released via lungs.

• Oxygen (O2): Atmospheric gas consumed by cells to produce energy.

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Water Properties

• Importance: Most significant body chemical.

• Functions: Excellent solvent, high heat capacity, and essential reactant in biological reactions.

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Water and Ionic Bonds Dissociation

• Water molecules can dissociate ionic bonds, illustrated by sodium chloride in solution.

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Key Note on Water

• Water accounts for a significant portion of body weight and is crucial for proteins and nucleic acids to function properly.

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Inorganic Acids and Bases

• Acid: Releases H+ into solution (e.g., HCl ➔ H+ + Cl-).

• Base: Removes H+ from solution (e.g., NaOH + H+ ➔ Na+ + OH-).

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pH Measurement

• Definition: Measure of H+ concentration in a solution.

• Neutral solution: pH = 7.

• Acidic solution: pH < 7.

• Basic solution: pH > 7.

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pH and Concentration of Ions

• Illustrates various solutions and their corresponding pH levels, highlighting acidic, neutral, and basic examples.

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Buffers

• Maintain pH within normal limits (pH 7.35 to 7.45).

• Release H+ if fluid is too basic; absorb H+ if too acidic.

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Salt and Electrolytes

• Salt: Ionic compound not containing H+ or OH-.

• Electrolytes: Dissociate in water (e.g., NaCl ➔ Na+ + Cl-), important for carrying electrical currents in the body.

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Organic Compounds Characteristics

• Composition: Contain carbon, hydrogen, and usually oxygen.

• Major classes: Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic acids.

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Carbohydrates

• Function: Primary energy source for metabolism.

• Types:

  • Monosaccharides (e.g., glucose)

  • Disaccharides (e.g., sucrose)

  • Polysaccharides (e.g., glycogen).

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Structure of Glucose

• Chemical structure representation of glucose molecule.

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Formation and Breakdown of Complex Sugars

• Dehydration Synthesis: Joining two molecules by removing a water molecule.

• Hydrolysis: Breaking down complex molecules by adding water.

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Formation of Glycogen

• Glucose molecules chemically combine to form glycogen.

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Table of Carbohydrates in the Body

Types and Functions:

• Monosaccharides: e.g., glucose, fructose - energy source.

• Disaccharides: e.g., sucrose, lactose - energy source.

• Polysaccharides: e.g., glycogen - storage of glucose.

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Overview of Lipids

• Characteristics: Water-insoluble molecules.

• Classes:

  • Fatty Acids

  • Fats

  • Steroids

  • Phospholipids.

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Representative Lipids and Their Functions

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Fatty Acids Structure

• Represents Lauric acid (C12H24O2).

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Triglycerides

• Formed by three fatty acids bonding to a glycerol molecule.

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Cholesterol Functions

• Building block for steroid hormones and component of cell membranes.

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Phospholipids

• Most abundant membrane lipid: contains two fatty acids and glycerol with both water-soluble and insoluble parts.

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Structure of a Phospholipid

• Illustration showing molecular components of a phospholipid.

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Proteins

• Most abundant organic component in the human body, composed of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, and sulfur.

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Vital Roles of Proteins

• Functions:

  • Support, Movement, Transport, Buffering, Regulation, Defense.

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Amino Acids

• Structure of an amino acid including central carbon, amino group, carboxylic acid, and "R" group.

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Peptide Bonds

• Peptide bonds formed through dehydration synthesis; breakdown via hydrolysis.

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Protein Structure

• Describes polypeptide chains and their folding into complex shapes affecting function.

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Enzyme Function

• Enzymes lower activation energy, allowing substrates to bind and convert to products.

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Steps of Enzyme Action

1. Substrates bind to the enzyme's active site.

2. Substrates interact to form products.

3. Products detach, allowing the enzyme to repeat the process.

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Nucleic Acids

• Large molecules made of C, H, O, N, and P; responsible for storing and processing molecular information.

• Types: DNA and RNA.

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Structure of Nucleic Acids

• Composed of nucleotides with sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base.

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Nucleotide Components

• Visual representation including sugar, phosphate groups, and nitrogenous bases (A, T, C, G for DNA; U for RNA).

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Nucleic Acids Structure - Continued

• Visual representation of hydrogen bonding in DNA structure.

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Nucleic Acids Structure Summary

• Nucleotides linked by sugar-phosphate bonds, stabilize DNA strands with hydrogen bonds.

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High-Energy Compounds

• Catabolism releases energy, stored in high-energy compounds (e.g., ATP) essential for cellular functions.

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Structure of ATP

• ATP composed of adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups, and plays a crucial role in energy transfer.

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Energy from Catabolism

• Visual representation of energy transfer during ATP utilization.

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Energy Release Visuals

• ATP to ADP/AMP energy cycle depicted.

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Summary of Energy from Cellular Catabolism

• Illustrating continuous energy release for cellular activities.

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ATP Energy Release Processes

• Explanation of ATP's role in energy release for maintaining cell function.

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Summary of ATP Energy Dynamics

• Continuous cycle of energy from ATP for cellular activities.

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Summary of Body Chemistry

• Overview of organic chemical building blocks in the body, highlighting various organic compounds and their roles:

  • Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, Polysaccharides.

  • Lipids: Triglycerides.

  • Proteins: Peptides.

  • Nucleic Acids: RNA, DNA.

  • High-Energy Compounds: ATP, composed of nucleotides.