Ap World Unit 4 Vocab

Chapter 21

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Armenian Genocide: Campaign of extermination undertaken by the Ottomans against two million of this ethnic

minority living in Ottoman territory during World War I.

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Balfour Declaration: British policy from 1917 that supported the creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine.

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Black Hand: Pre-WWI secret Serbian society, a member of which assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand,

sparking the outbreak of WWI.

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Bolshevik: Russian communist party headed by Lenin.

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Central Powers: WWI term for the alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman empire.

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Dreadnoughts: A class of British battleships whose heavy armaments made all other battleships obsolete

overnight.

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February Revolution: 1917 uprising in Russia that led to the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II and the end of the

Romanov dynasty, setting the stage for later Bolshevik control.

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Fourteen Points: Idealistic post-WWI peace proposal by Woodrow Wilson that called for self-determination,

open diplomacy, and the creation of an international peacekeeping organization.

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Gallipoli: Failed Allied campaign during WWI to take control of the Dardanelles and open a supply route to

Russia; resulted in heavy casualties, especially among Australian and New Zealand forces.

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Home front: Term made popular in World War I and II for the civilian “front” that was symbolic of the greater

demands of total war.

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League of Nations: Forerunner of the United Nations, project of Woodrow Wilson, although its effectiveness

was limited by the United States refusal to join.

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October Revolution: 1917 seizure of power in Russia by the Bolsheviks, who overthrew the provisional

government and established a communist regime.

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Paris Peace Conference: 1919 meeting of the victorious Allied powers to negotiate the terms of peace after

WWI; led to several treaties, including the Treaty of Versailles.

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Self-determination: Belief popular in World War I and after that every peoples should have the right to

determine their own political destiny. The belief was often cited, but ignored, by the Great Powers

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Sykes-Picot Treaty: Secret 1917 treaty between the British and French, with the agreement of Russia, to divide

the modern Middle East between them after the end of WWI.

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Treaty of Brest-Litovsk: 1918 peace treaty between the new Bolshevik government of Russia and the Central

Powers, ending Russia’s involvement in WWI and ceding large territories to Germany.

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Treaty of Versailles: 1919 treaty between the victorious Entente powers and the defeated Germany at the end

of WWI, which laid the blame for the war on Germany and exacted harsh reparations.

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Triple Alliance: Pre-WWI alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy.

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Triple Entente: Pre-WWI alliance of England, France, and Russia.

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Twenty-one Demands: 1915 list of demands issued by Japan to China seeking increased political and

economic control; met with limited acceptance and international criticism.

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Zimmerman Telegram: Secret communication from Germany to Mexico in 1917 proposing a military alliance

against the United States; its interception helped bring the U.S. into WWI.

Chapter 22

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Black Thursday: October 24, 1929, the day the U.S. stock market crashed, marking the beginning of the Great

Depression as panicked investors sold off massive amounts of stock, causing widespread financial chaos.

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Collectivization of Agriculture: Process beginning in the late 1920s by which Stalin forced the Russian

peasants off their own land and onto huge farms run by the state; millions dying in the process.

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Economic nationalism: Economic policies pursued by many governments affected by the Great Depression in

which the nation tries to become economically self-sufficient by imposing high tariffs on foreign goods. The

policy served to exacerbate the damaging effects of the Depression around the world.

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Eugenics: Late 19th and early 20th century movement that sought to improve the gene pool of the human race

by encouraging those deemed fit to hvae more children, and discourage those deemed unfit from reproducing.

The movement was deeply tied to racism, and adopted by the Nazi regime in Germany to justify extermination

of “undesirable” populations.

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Fascism: A far-right, anti-democratic political ideology and mass movement that was prominent in many parts

of Europe between 1919 and 1945; characterized by extreme nationalism, suppression of opposition, and

authoritarianism, it sought to regenerate the social, political, and cultural life of societies, especially in contrast

to liberal democracy and socialism.

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Five year plans: First implemented by Stalin in the Soviet Union in 1928, were a staple of communist regimes

in which every aspect of production was determined in advance for a five year period. Opposite of the free

market concept.

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Great Depression: Global economic crisis beginning in 1929 and lasting through the 1930s, triggered by the

U.S. stock market crash and marked by massive unemployment, bank failures, and economic stagnation

worldwide.

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Great Purge: Stalin’s campaign of political repression from 1936 to 1938 in the Soviet Union, during which

millions were executed, imprisoned, or exiled as perceived threats to the regime, including Communist Party

members, military officers, and ordinary citizens.

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Kristallnacht: Coordinated attack on Jewish homes, businesses, and synagogues throughout Nazi Germany on

the night of November 9–10, 1938; seen as a major escalation of anti-Semitic policy and violence.

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Kulaks: Land-owning Russian peasants who benefited under Lenin’s New Economic Policy and suffered under

Stalin’s forced collectivization.

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Lost Generation: Term for the group of American and European intellectuals, artists, and writers disillusioned

by the brutality of WWI and critical of the materialism and emptiness of postwar society.

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National Socialism: German far-right ideology associated with Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party, combining

intense nationalism, militarism, racial purity, and totalitarian control, and responsible for WWII and the

Holocaust.

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New Deal: Series of economic and social reforms introduced by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt in the

1930s to combat the Great Depression through public works, financial regulations, and social safety programs.

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New Economic Policy: Plan implemented by Lenin that called for minor free-market reforms.

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Nuremberg Laws: 1935 racial laws passed in Nazi Germany that stripped Jews of citizenship and prohibited

marriage or sexual relations between Jews and non-Jews, laying the groundwork for further persecution.

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Pogrom: Yiddish word meaning “devastation: referring to an organized massacre of a particular ethnic group,

especially Jews in Eastern Europe.

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Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act: 1930 U.S. legislation that raised tariffs on thousands of imported goods, worsening

the global economic crisis by reducing international trade during the Great Depression.

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Xenophobia: Irrational fear or hatred of foreigners or people from different cultures, often leading to

discriminatory policies and social exclusion.

Chapter 23

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Chinese Communist Party: Political party founded in 1921 that sought to organize China’s working class and

promote Marxist-Leninist ideas; under Mao Zedong’s leadership, it became the ruling party after the Chinese

Civil War and established the People's Republic of China in 1949.

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Dollar diplomacy: U.S. foreign policy in the early 20th century, especially under President Taft, that used

economic investment and loans to extend American influence in Latin America and East Asia rather than direct

military intervention.

●

Good Neighbor Policy: U.S. foreign policy under President Franklin D. Roosevelt aimed at improving relations

with Latin America by renouncing armed intervention and promoting mutual respect and economic cooperation.

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India Act: 1935 British Act that transferred to India the institutions of a self-governing state.

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Indian National Congress: Major Indian political party founded in the late 19th century to promote greater

Indian participation in government; it became the principal leader of the Indian independence movement under

figures like Gandhi and Nehru.

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Long March: 1934–1935 military retreat of the Chinese Communist forces to evade pursuit by the Nationalist

army; the grueling journey across thousands of miles helped solidify Mao Zedong’s leadership and became a

symbol of revolutionary endurance.

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May Fourth Movement: Chinese movement that began 4 May 1919 with a desire to eliminate imperialist

influences and promote national unity.

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Mukden Incident: 1931 staged explosion by Japanese troops on a Japanese-owned railway in Manchuria,

used as a pretext for invading and occupying the region in violation of international agreements.

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pan-Africanism: Ideological and political movement that emphasized the unity of all people of African descent

around the world and sought to end colonial rule and promote cultural and political solidarity.

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Satyagraha: “Truth and firmness” a term associated with Gandhi’s policy of nonviolent resistence.

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United Fruit Company: American corporation that controlled vast territories and infrastructure in Central

America and the Caribbean during the 20th century; it exercised significant political and economic influence,

often symbolizing U.S. imperialism in the region.

Chapter 24

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Allied Powers: Alliance during World War II consisting primarily of the United States, the Soviet Union, Great

Britain, and China, which opposed the Axis Powers.

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Anschluss: 1938 union of Austria with Nazi Germany, achieved through pressure and intimidation rather than

formal conquest; seen as an early act of German aggression before WWII.

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Appeasement: British and French policy in the 1930’s that tried to maintain peace in Europe in the face of

German aggression by making concessions.

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Auschwitz: Camp established by the Nazi regime in occupied Poland, which functioned both as a concentration

camp and an extermination camp. Approximately one million Jews were killed there.

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Axis Powers: Alliance of Germany, Italy, and Japan during World War II, which sought to expand their territories

through military conquest.

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Battle of Britain: Air campaign waged by the German Luftwaffe against the United Kingdom in 1940, which

marked the first major defeat of Hitler’s forces and prevented a German invasion of Britain.

●

Bay of Pigs: Failed 1961 U.S.

-backed invasion of Cuba by Cuban exiles attempting to overthrow Fidel Castro;

the event was a major embarrassment for the Kennedy administration.

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Berlin Wall: Barrier built in 1961 by East Germany with Soviet support to prevent East Berliners from fleeing to

West Berlin; it became a powerful symbol of Cold War division until its fall in 1989.

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Blitzkrieg: German style of rapid attack through the use of armor and air power that was used in Poland,

Norway, Denmark, Belgium, the Netherlands, and France, in 1939-1940.

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Brezhnev Doctrine: Soviet policy that claimed the right to invade any socialist country faced with internal or

external enemies.

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Cold war: Period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective

allies from the late 1940s to the early 1990s, marked by ideological conflict, arms races, and proxy wars.

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Comfort women: Mainly Korean, Taiwanese, and Manchurian women who were forced into service by the

Japanese army to serve as prostitutes to the Japanese troops during WWII.

●

Cuban missile crisis: 1962 confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union over the placement

of Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba; it brought the world to the brink of nuclear war before a negotiated

withdrawal.

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D-Day: June 6, 1944 Allied invasion of Nazi-occupied France at Normandy; it marked a turning point in World

War II in Europe by opening a western front against Germany.

●

de-Stalinization: Reform process initiated by Nikita Khrushchev in the 1950s aimed at denouncing Stalin's

abuses, reducing the use of terror, and relaxing censorship in the Soviet Union.

●

Detente: A reduction in cold war tension between the United States and Soviet Union from 1969 to 1975.

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Domino theory: Cold War belief held by U.S. policymakers that if one nation fell to communism, neighboring

countries would soon follow, justifying American intervention around the world.

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Final solution: Nazi plan to systematically exterminate the Jewish population of Europe through the use of

concentration camps, mass shootings, and gas chambers.

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German-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact: 1939 agreement between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union to not

attack each other; included a secret protocol to divide Eastern Europe between them.

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Hiroshima: Japanese city destroyed by the first atomic bomb on August 6, 1945; tens of thousands were killed

instantly, with many more dying from radiation exposure in the aftermath.

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Holocaust: German attempt in World War II to exterminate the Jews of Europe.

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Iwo Jima: Fierce battle in 1945 between U.S. and Japanese forces on a small island near Japan; its capture

allowed the U.S. to launch direct attacks on the Japanese mainland.

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Kamikaze: A Japanese term meaning “divine wind” that is related to the storms that destroyed Mongol invasion

fleets. The term is symbolic of Japanese isolation and was later taken by suicide pilots in WWII.

●

Lebensraum: German term meaning “living space” and associated with Hitler and his goal of carving out

territory in the east for an expanding Germany.

●

Luftwaffe: German air force during World War II, responsible for carrying out aerial bombardments and

supporting ground invasions.

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Manchukuo: Puppet state established by Japan in northeastern China (Manchuria) after the 1931 invasion; it

was ruled by a puppet government but controlled by the Japanese military.

●

Marshall Plan: US Plan that offered financial and other economic aid to all European states that had suffered

from World war II, including Soviet bloc states.

●

Munich Conference: 1938 meeting between Germany, Great Britain, Italy, and France in which attendees

agreed to German expansion in Czechoslovakia. The conference is known for its concessions to Hitler.

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Nagasaki: Second Japanese city destroyed by an atomic bomb, dropped by the U.S. on August 9, 1945;

contributed to Japan's decision to surrender, ending WWII.

●

NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization, a military alliance formed in 1949 between the United States,

Canada, and Western European nations to provide collective security against the Soviet Union.

●

Okinawa: Major battle in 1945 that resulted in one of the bloodiest confrontations of the Pacific War; the island

was critical for launching an invasion of mainland Japan.

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Operation Barbarossa: Code name for the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941; it marked a turning

point in WWII when Germany opened a second front and faced fierce Soviet resistance.

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Pearl Harbor: Surprise Japanese attack on the U.S. naval base in Hawaii on December 7, 1941, which led to

the United States' entry into World War II.

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Prague Spring: Period in 1968 in which the communist leader of Czechoslovakia launched a reform movement

aimed at softening Soviet-style rule. The movement was crushed with Russian forces invaded.

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Rape of Nanjing: Japanese conquest and destruction of the Chinese city of Nanjing in the 1930s.

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Spanish Civil War: Conflict from 1936 to 1939 between the Republicans, who were supported by communists

and democrats, and the Nationalists, led by Franco and supported by fascist regimes in Germany and Italy;

resulted in a fascist dictatorship.

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Stalingrad: Major Soviet victory over German forces in 1942–1943 during World War II; one of the bloodiest

battles in history and a key turning point on the Eastern Front.

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Sudetenland: German-speaking region of Czechoslovakia annexed by Nazi Germany in 1938 with the approval

of Western powers during the Munich Conference.

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Truman Doctrine: US policy instituted in 1947 in which the US would follow an interventionist foreign policy to

contain communism.

●

United Nations: Successor to the League of Nations, an association of sovereign nations that attempts to find

solutions to global problems.

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Vichy: Collaborative regime established in southern France after the German occupation in 1940; nominally

independent but aligned with and controlled by Nazi Germany.

●

Wannsee: 1942 conference held by senior Nazi officials to coordinate the implementation of the Final Solution,

the systematic extermination of the Jewish population.

●

Warsaw Pact: Military alliance formed by Soviet bloc nations in 1955 in response to rearmament of West

Germany and its inclusion in NATO.

Chapter 25

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African National Congress: South African Political Party formed in 1912 that provided consistent opposition to

the apartheid state, and eventually became the majority party at the end of the apartheid era in 1994.

●

Apartheid: South African system of “separateness” that was implemented in 1948 and that maintained the

black majority in a position of political, social, and economic subordination.

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Decolonization: Process by which former colonies archived their independence, as with the newly emerging

African nations in the 1950s and 1960s.

●

Geneva Conference: 1954 meeting between major powers to resolve issues in Asia, particularly the future of

Vietnam after the French defeat at Dien Bien Phu; it temporarily divided Vietnam at the 17th parallel, setting

the stage for further conflict.

●

Great Leap Forward: 1958–1961 Chinese campaign initiated by Mao Zedong to rapidly transform China from

an agrarian society into a socialist society through collective farming and industrial projects; it led to

widespread famine and the deaths of millions.

●

Cultural Revolution (Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution): 1966–1976 movement launched by Mao Zedong to

preserve Chinese communism by purging capitalist and traditional elements from society; led to widespread

persecution, destruction of cultural heritage, and social upheaval.

●

Indian National Congress: Major Indian political party founded in the late 19th century to promote greater

Indian participation in government; it became the principal leader of the Indian independence movement under

figures like Gandhi and Nehru.

●

Intifada: Palestinian mass movement against Israeli rule in the Gaza Strip and other occupied territories.

●

Iranian Revolution: 1979 overthrow of the U.S.

-backed Shah of Iran and the establishment of an Islamic

republic under Ayatollah Khomeini; marked a dramatic shift from secular monarchy to religious theocracy.

●

Islamism: Political ideology that seeks to reorder government and society according to Islamic law and values;

often in reaction to perceived Western imperialism and secularism.

●

Muslim League: Political organization in British India that advocated for the interests of Muslims; played a

central role in the creation of Pakistan as a separate Muslim state in 1947.

●

Nonaligned Movement: Movement in which leaders of former colonial states sought to assert their

independence from either Soviet or US domination. Initial meeting was held in 1955.

●

Partition of India: Period immediately following Indian and Pakistani independence in 1947, in which millions of

Muslims sought to move to Pakistan and millions of Hindus sought to move to Pakistan from India. It was

marked by brutal sectarian violence, and the deaths of between one half million and a million people.

●

Suez Crisis: 1956 conflict in which Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal, leading to an invasion by Britain,

France, and Israel; international pressure, especially from the U.S. and Soviet Union, forced their withdrawal,

signaling the decline of European colonial influence.

●

Tiananmen Square: 1989 pro-democracy student protest in Beijing that was violently suppressed by the

Chinese government; became a global symbol of authoritarian repression.

●

Viet Cong: Communist guerrilla fighters in South Vietnam who opposed the U.S.

-backed South Vietnamese

government during the Vietnam War; supported by North Vietnam.

●

Vietnamization: President Richard Nixon’s strategy of turning the Vietnam War over to the South Vietnamese.

Chapter 26

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al-Qaeda: Militant Isllamist organization founded by Osama bin Laden in 1988, which was responsible for the

September 11, 2001 attacks in the United States.

●

BRICs: Acronym for the fast-growing and developing economies of Brazil, Russia, India, and China.

●

Bush Doctrine: A set of policies that advocated preemptive strikes by the United States against potential

enemies instead of containment or deterrence.

●

Climate change: Long-term alterations in global temperature and weather patterns, largely driven by human

activities such as the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial emissions.

●

European Union: Established by the Maastricht Treatiy in 1993, a supranational organization for even greater

economic and political integration.

●

Feminist Movement: Global movement, especially prominent in the 20th century, advocating for political,

economic, and social equality between the sexes, with major achievements in voting rights, education, and

workplace access.

●

Free Trade: Economic policy that promotes the unrestricted exchange of goods and services between nations

by reducing or eliminating tariffs, quotas, and other barriers.

●

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade: Agreement signed in 1947 and by 1994 had grown to 123 members

and formed the World Trade Organization.

●

Glasnost: Russian term meaning “openness” introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev in 1985 to describe the process

of opening Soviet society to dissidents and public criticism.

●

Global warming: The emission of greenhouse gasse, which prevents solar heat from escaping the earth’s

atmosphere and leads to the gradual heating of the earth’s environment.

●

Globalization: The breaking down of traditional boundaries in the face of increasingly global financial and

cultural trends.

●

HIV/AIDS: Global epidemic beginning in the late 20th century caused by a virus that weakens the immune

system, disproportionately affecting developing countries and prompting widespread international health

initiatives.

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Little tigers: Nickname for the rapidly industrializing economies of Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, and

Taiwan in the late 20th century, which followed Japan's model of export-driven growth.

●

Mujahideen: Meaning “Islamic Warriors,

” a group who fought against Soviet intervention in Afghanistan in

1979. They were supplied and trained by United States CIA operatives, which helped lead to a Soviet

withdrawal in 1989.

●

North American Free Trade Agreement: Regional accord on trade established in 1993 between the United

States, Canada, and Mexico.

●

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC): An organization begun in 1960 by oil-producing states

originally for purely economic reasons but that later had more political influence.

●

Operation Iraqi Freedom: U.S.

-led military invasion of Iraq in 2003 aimed at toppling the regime of Saddam

Hussein under the justification of eliminating weapons of mass destruction and spreading democracy.

●

Perestroika: “Restructuring,

” a Russian term associated with Gorbachev’s effort to reorganize the Soviet state.

●

Taliban: Strict Islamic organization that ruled Afghanistan from 1996 to 2002.

●

Terrorism: Use of violence and intimidation, especially against civilians, to achieve political, religious, or

ideological aims; became a major global concern in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.

●

Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Adopted by the United Nations in 1948, this document outlines

fundamental human rights to be universally protected, including rights to life, liberty, and security.

●

Velvet revolutions: A term that describes the nonviolent transfer of power in Czechoslovakia during the

collapse of Soviet rule.

●

World Trade Organization: An organization that was established in 1995 with more than 120 nations and

whose goal is to loosen barriers to free trade.

People

Chapter 21

●

Ataturk: 1881-1938 CE Meaning “Father of the Turks,

” his real name was Mustafa Kemal. He was a Turkish

army officer, reformer, and the first president of the modern Republic of Turkey after the Ottoman defeat in

World War I.

●

Franz Ferdinand: 1863–1914 CE. Archduke of Austria-Hungary whose assassination in Sarajevo by a Serbian

nationalist sparked the beginning of World War I.

●

Vladimir Lenin: 1870-1954 CE Russian revolutionary and politician who led the Bolshevik Revolution in

November 1917 and became the first head of state of the Soviet Union until his death.

●

Woodrow Wilson: 1856-1924 President of the United States during World War I and author of the “Fourteen

Points,

” one of which envisioned the establishment of the League of Nations.

Chapter 22

●

Adolf Hitler: 1889-1945 CE German politician and leader of the Nazi Party, who came to power in 1933. He

initiated the European theater of World War II by invading Poland in 1939 and oversaw the establishment of

death camps that resulted in more than ten million deaths.

●

Albert Einstein: 1879-1955 CE German-born physicist who developed the theory of relativity and whose ideas

had profound influence on the development of science in the twentieth century.

●

Benito Mussolini: 1833-1945 CE Italian politician and journalist who led the National Fascist Party and ruled as

prime minister from 1922 to 1943.

●

Franklin Delano Roosevelt: 1822-1945 CE American politician who served as the thirty-second president of the

United States from 1933 until his death.

●

John Maynard Keynes: 1883–1946 CE. British economist whose ideas gave rise to Keynesian economics,

advocating for government intervention to moderate economic downturns.

●

Joseph Stalin: 1878-1953 CE Soviet revolutionary who led the Soviet Union from the mid-1920s until his death,

whose policies resulted in the deaths of twenty million people.

Chapter 23

●

Fidel Castro: 1926–2016 CE. Cuban revolutionary who overthrew the Batista regime in 1959 and led Cuba as

prime minister and then president until 2008.

●

Mao Zedong: 1893-1976 CE Chinese communist revolutionary who ruled China as the chairman of the

Communist Party from 1949, when the communists defeated the nationalist Guomindang Party and forced its

leaders to flee to Taiwan, until his death.

●

Mohandas Gandhi: 1869-1948 CE Indian nationalist, politician, and lawyer who led the campaign against

British rule by employing methods of nonviolent resistance.

●

Muhammad Ali Jinnah: 1876-1948 CE Politician and independence fighter who led the All-India Muslim League

from 1913 until the founding of Pakistan in 1947 and then served as the first leader of independent Pakistan

until his death.

●

Sun Yatsen: 1866-1925 CE Chinese physician and politician who founded the CHinese nationalist

Guomindang Party and then briefly served as the first president of the Republic of China.

Chapter 24

●

Winston Churchill: 1874-1965 CE British politician who was prime minister of the United Kingdom from 1940 to

1945, during which time he led the British to victory.

Chapter 25

●

Deng Xiaoping: 1904-1997 CE Chinese politician who led the People’s Republic of CHina from 1978 to his

retirement in 1992.

●

F.W. de Klerk: 1936–2021 CE. Last president of apartheid-era South Africa, known for releasing Nelson

Mandela and beginning the end of apartheid.

●

Gamal Abdel Nasser: 1918-1970 CE Second president of Egypt who led the overthrow of the monarchy in

1952 and served from 1954 until his death.

●

Ho Chi Minh: 1890-1969 CE North Vietnamese revolutionary and politician who first fought the French and

then the Americans, and then became the first prime minister of North Vietnam in 1945.

●

Jawaharlal Nehru: 1889-1964 CE Indian activist and politician who fought for decades for Indian independence

and became the first prime minister of India.

●

Lyndon Johnson: 1908–1973 CE. U.S. president from 1963 to 1969, known for civil rights legislation and

escalation of the Vietnam War.

●

Mahmoud Ahmadinejad: 1956– CE. Iranian president from 2005 to 2013 known for his controversial rhetoric

and nuclear policy and anti-Israel stance that escalated tensions with the United States.

●

Nelson Mandela: 1918-2013 CE South African revolutionary and politician who consistently fought against the

apartheid state until its demise in 1994. He became the first black president of South Africa, and served from

1994 to 1999.

●

Saddam Hussein: 1937-2006 CE The fifth president of Iraq, who served from 1979 to 2003 until he was ousted

by a coalition led by the United States.

Chapter 26

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Barack Obama: 1961- CE Forty-fourth president of the United States, who served from 2009 to 2017. He was

the first US president of African descent.

●

Benazir Bhuto: 1953-2007 CE Pakistani politician who served twice as Pakistani prime minister: in 1988-1990

and then again in 1993-1996. She was assassinated in 2007.

●

Indira Gandhi: 1917-1984 CE Indian politician and daughter of Jawaharlal Nehru who became the first Indian

female prime minister in 1966.

●

Mikhail Gorbachev: 1931-2022 CE Soviet politician who served as the last leader of the Soviet Union from

1985 until 1991, when the Soviet Union dissolved.

●

Osama bin Laden: 1957-2011 CE Saudi Arabian-born founder of the militant pan-Islamic organization al-Qaeda

responsible for planning the September 11, 2001 attacks in the United States.

●

Ronald Reagan: 1911-2004 CE Fortieth president of the United States, who served from 1981 to 1989. He was noted for his anti-communism actions.