Chapter 6 - America's War for Independence
6.1 Britain’s Law-and-Order Strategy and Its Consequences
Learning objectives
Explain how Great Britain’s response to the destruction of a British shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in 1773 set the stage for the Revolution.
Describe the beginnings of the American Revolution.
Context: Britain’s imperial debt and revenue efforts (mid/late 18th century)
After the French and Indian War, Britain faced a heavy empire-wide debt and sought revenue mechanisms on both sides of the Atlantic.
Tea and other goods were taxed; the East India Company monopoly on tea was a focal point of protest.
Patriot groups (e.g., the Sons of Liberty) led boycotts and violent resistance against British tax laws.
The Boston Tea Party and its aftermath
December 1773: Patriots dumped tea into Boston Harbor to protest the Tea Act; the value of the destroyed tea exceeded 1{,}000{,}000 in current prices.
The British response in 1774 aimed to restore order and punish Massachusetts.
The Coercive Acts (Intolerable Acts) and escalation
Parliament enacted a series of punitive measures closing Boston Port, restricting colonial assemblies, and disbanding town meetings to punish Massachusetts and bring the colony into line.
Seeds of resistance organized at the continental level
September–October 1774: All colonies except Georgia convened the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia.
The Continental Congress called for a boycott of British goods and established the Continental Association to enforce the boycott, replacing royal control in practice.
Virginia and the broader colonial response to coercion
Virginia’s House of Burgesses voiced solidarity with Massachusetts; a day of fasting and prayer (May 1774) was observed in sympathy with Boston.
Virginia’s Committee of Safety helped ensure merchants signed non-importation agreements proposed by the Continental Congress.
A contemporaneous British cartoon (Figure 6.3) critiques the pressure to sign non-importation agreements.
British attempt to restore order in Massachusetts
General Thomas Gage dispatched to Boston (May 1774) with several regiments to occupy the town and restore order.
Suffolk Resolves rejected the Coercive Acts and called for colonial militia action if needed; they signaled the overthrow of royal government in Massachusetts.
Military preparations and the emergence of minutemen
Gage stationed ~3{,}500 troops in Boston; raids on towns stockpiling guns and gunpowder.
Minutemen—local militias with rapid-response capability—formed from veterans of the French and Indian War and helped defend the countryside around Boston.
Notable skirmish: Gage’s attempt to seize munitions in Cambridge and Charlestown; Salem crowds blocked him.
New England organized for possible war; Concord’s powder magazine was a focal point of seizure plans.
The Lexington–Concord battles and the outbreak of the Revolution
April 19, 1775: Minutemen confronted British troops at Lexington and then at Concord; the British retreated to Boston amid ambushes by militias.
The engagement helped earn the line, the "shot heard round the world" (as echoed later by Emerson).
Siege of Boston and early colonial victories
Boston became the wartime headquarters for the Continental forces, with militias surrounding the city.
Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold captured Fort Ticonderoga (May 1775); cannons brought to Massachusetts bolstered the siege.
Early state actions and the revolutionary mindset
Mecklenburg Resolves (Mecklenburg County, NC, May 1775) declared rebellion against Britain and transferred governing authority to the Continental Congress; supported local militias.
Dunmore’s Proclamation (Nov 1775) offered freedom to enslaved people and indentured servants who joined Loyalist forces against the rebels; Dunmore eventually fled Virginia in 1776.
The Proclamation highlighted the war’s racial dimensions and the strategic calculus around slavery: revolutionaries feared slave uprisings, while the British sought to recruit enslaved people for military advantage.
Common Sense and republican ideology
Thomas Paine’s Common Sense (published Jan 1776) argued for independence and rejected monarchy, calling for a republic based on popular sovereignty.
Paine framed government as deriving its powers from the governed and championed virtue and the public good over narrow self-interest.
The pamphlet’s plain language broadened appeal beyond elites and helped mobilize support for independence.
The Declaration of Independence (summer 1776)
Drafted by Thomas Jefferson with support from John Adams and others; justified independence by listing grievances against King George III and outlining the new republic’s ideals.
Preamble emphasizes Enlightenment principles: universal rights and the right of the people to alter or abolish government when it undermines those rights.
Text features a fundamental contradiction: while declaring equality, it existed alongside slavery; enslaved people and non-White populations were largely excluded from the rights promised.
The Declaration served as a rallying document and a tool to secure foreign recognition and aid (e.g., from France and Spain).
For discussion: how the Declaration’s universal language coexists with the reality of slavery and Native dispossession at the time.
Significance and broader implications
The Declaration helped frame the Revolution as a civil religion and a universal project (global influence on independence movements).
The revolutionary era highlighted tensions between liberty and slavery, and between universal rights and colonial domination.
Quick recall points (dates and terms)
1773: Boston Tea Party
1774: Coercive Acts; First Continental Congress; Suffolk Resolves
1775: Lexington and Concord; Mecklenburg Resolves; Gage in Boston
1776: Common Sense; Declaration of Independence
Key ideas: law-and-order approach, boycotts, militia mobilization, republicanism, universal rights vs. enslaved peoples
6.2 The Early Years of the Revolution
Strategic context and British aims (mid -late 1770s)
After the Boston quitting, Britain sought to isolate New England from the rest of the colonies by taking key centers (New York City in 1776; Philadelphia in 1777).
The overarching plan in 1777 was to sever New England from the rest by moving three armies along the Hudson River from NYC, Montreal, and Fort Oswego toward Albany.
Three-pronged British strategy and key generals
General William Howe (commander-in-chief) amassed ~32{,}000 troops plus Admiral Richard Howe controlling New York Harbor; goal: NYC and Hudson River control.
The three-pronged plan included: Burgoyne from Montreal; St. Leger from Fort Oswego (Ontario) with Iroquois; and Clinton from NYC to converge near Albany.
Early major battles and outcomes (1776–1777)
Battle of Long Island (Aug 1776): Howe defeated Washington’s Continental Army on Long Island; American forces outnumbered and inexperienced.
September 1776 peace conference failed to grant independence; Ben Franklin, John Adams, and John Rutledge represented the American side.
Battle of Harlem Heights (Sept 1776): Washington’s forces held their own; a morale-boosting reversal after Long Island.
Battle of White Plains (Oct 1776): Howe defeated Washington; NYC fell to the British; Howe established NYC as a military hub.
Washington’s tactical shifts and reorganization
The Continental Army began transitioning from a militia-based force to a more professional army under Washington’s leadership.
The winter encampment at Valley Forge (winter 1777–1778) exposed severe supply shortages and disease but became a turning point with professional training.
Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben (Prussian) arrived in February 1778; wrote Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States; instituted a formal drill program that professionalized the army.
Saratoga and the shift in international support
Burgoyne’s southern campaign from Fort Oswego and Montreal met stiff resistance; St. Leger failed to link with Burgoyne and withdrew; Burgoyne surrendered at Saratoga on October 17, 1777.
The American victory at Saratoga convinced France to recognize American independence and form a military alliance; opened doors for French military and financial support (e.g., Lafayette’s arrival in 1777 as a volunteer).
Spain joined the war against Britain in 1779; the Dutch Republic began supporting the Americans with trade and financing (treaty of commerce in 1782).
The economic and logistical strain on the rebel cause
Continental currency issued by revolutionary governments experienced severe inflation; by 1781, 146 Continental dollars were worth 1 in gold.
Funding shortages caused ongoing hardship; reliance on European loans and foreign subsidies grew.
Washington’s unconventional winter campaigns and morale strategies
After rallying from defeats, Washington’s winter offensives included surprise strikes in winter quarters (e.g., crossed the Delaware in December 1776 and attacked Hessians at Trenton on Dec 26, 1776). A victory at Princeton followed on Jan 3, 1777.
These victories boosted revolutionary morale and demonstrated the value of bold, non-traditional tactics.
The Army’s professionalization and key figures
Washington as commander-in-chief; von Steuben as trainer; Marquis de Lafayette as a major ally and aide-de-camp; Rochambeau later provided ground and naval support.
The broader international frame
The French alliance (1778) brought military aid, naval power, and leadership; later Spanish and Dutch support deepened pressure on Britain.
The war expanded beyond North America as allied powers contributed to the defeat of British forces in different theaters.
Key figures and terms
General Howe (and brother Admiral Howe), George Washington, Baron von Steuben, Marquis de Lafayette, Rochambeau, Grasse (naval), Burgoyne, St. Leger, Clinton.
Notable documents and concepts
The American Crisis by Thomas Paine (first pamphlet published 1776) framed perseverance and resolve during hard times.
The concept of a professional Continental Army emerging from a previously militia-dominated force.
6.3 War in the South
Shift in British strategy (late 1770s–1781)
By 1778–1780, Britain pivoted to a southern strategy, seeking Loyalist support, enslaved people seeking freedom, and Native American allies to bolster military strength.
Savannah, Georgia (captured in December 1778) marked the beginning of Southern campaigns.
The southern campaigns and key battles
Georgia: British forces formed twenty Loyalist regiments and promised freedom to enslaved people who joined them.
South Carolina: Violence and civil conflict erupted in the backcountry; the revolution intensified regional and racial tensions.
Siege of Charleston (April–May 1780): A major American defeat; British capture a large number of American troops and establish military governance there.
Camden (Aug 1780): British forces under Cornwallis defeated American forces led by General Horatio Gates; a major setback for the Patriots.
The South also saw leadership changes: Nathanael Greene assumed command in 1780 and pursued a strategy of attrition and strategic mobility rather than outright battles.
Guerrilla and conventional warfare in the backcountry
Greene’s strategy involved dividing forces to strike British detachments in the countryside, undermining Cornwallis’s hold in the region.
Morgan and others achieved notable victories (e.g., Cowpens, Jan–Feb 1781) that weakened British control and logistics.
Guilford Courthouse and the turning point in the South
Battle of Guilford Courthouse (Mar 1781): British won a tactical victory but with heavy losses, signaling the depletion of British resources and morale in the region.
Yorktown and the conclusion of major hostilities
Cornwallis moved to Yorktown, Virginia, in 1781, hoping for naval support to evacuate or link with Clinton’s forces.
A combined French-American force (about 16{,}000) surrounded Yorktown; Admiral de Grasse’s fleet blocked British naval retreat in the Chesapeake.
After an eight-day siege, Cornwallis capitulated on October 19, 1781.
The traditional image of surrendering with a sword is often depicted as Charles O’Hara surrendering to Benjamin Lincoln (though Washington would later receive the sword in the mythic moment).
The cultural and emotional aftermath
The victory signaled the end of major fighting in the colonies and shifted momentum toward negotiation and diplomacy.
The phrase associated with the surrender, “The World Turned Upside Down,” captured the reversal of imperial fortune in Britain’s aftermath.
6.4 Identity during the American Revolution
The war as multiple civil wars within the colonies
The Revolution divided populations in the middle colonies (New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania) and elsewhere along lines of Loyalists vs. Patriots; identity was unsettled and contested.
Loyalists
Estimates of Loyalists range from 20 ext{–}30 ext{%} of the population; in some cases up to one-third.
Loyalists included royal officials, merchants with ties to Britain, and others who feared or challenged revolutionary change.
After the war, many Loyalists fled the new United States: roughly 100{,}000 relocated, with ~8{,}000 Whites and 5{,}000 free Blacks going to Britain; ~30{,}000 to Canada; others to the West Indies.
In New York’s Hudson Valley, resentment toward revolutionary leaders’ estates pushed tenants toward loyalties to the Crown.
Many Loyalists faced confiscation acts and oaths of allegiance; property confiscations and imprisonment were common consequences for those who refused to renounce loyalty to Britain.
William Franklin, Benjamin Franklin’s Loyalist son, served as royal governor of New Jersey and later relocated to England; family estrangement ensued.
Enslaved people and Native Americans
Enslaved people fought on both sides or fled to gain freedom: estimates suggest that about 20{,}000 enslaved people joined the British side during the war; at Yorktown, many Black troops served with Cornwallis.
The Revolution offered enslaved people opportunities for freedom via service with the British, who promised emancipation in exchange for loyalty.
Washington refused to arm enslaved people or permit their enlistment in the Continental Army; in his will, he freed the enslaved individuals he owned.
Native American alliances were significant, especially among groups like the Mohawk under Joseph Brant (Thayendanegea), who supported the British and moved to the Six Nations reserve in Canada after the war.
The treaty outcomes and postwar borders rewarded white settler claims at Native expense; Native lands were largely ceded to the United States, despite British efforts to honor promises.
Patriots
Patriots (also called Whigs) came from diverse backgrounds: artisans, merchants, farmers, sailors, etc., driven by a shared desire for independence and an end to imperial controls.
The war exposed supply shortages, funding challenges, and the need for a cohesive national strategy.
The Continental currency’s instability and inflation highlighted the fragility of the new political economy; by 1781, inflation was extreme, with 146 Continental dollars worth 1 in gold.
Women and the home front
Women bore heavy domestic responsibilities and contributed to the war effort by producing clothing, food, and supplies; they also served as nurses and camp followers.
The Daughters of Liberty and Esther DeBerdt Reed’s Ladies Association of Philadelphia mobilized women to support the army; Reed’s group raised nearly 300{,}000 in Continental money for the war.
Some women organized mobs to challenge hoarding and defend fair prices; others supported the army through provisioning and manufacturing (homespun cloth, linen, etc.).
The war opened some public roles for women, though most leadership remained male-dominated; women’s wartime activities contributed to long-term conversations about women’s political and social roles.
The wartime narratives of Black Loyalists and Patriots
Personal narratives (e.g., Boyrereau Brinch, The Blind African Slave; and Boston King) illustrate divergent experiences: Brinch fought for Patriots and gained freedom; King fought for Loyalists and later gained refuge with the British, highlighting the moral and practical complexity of freedom during the Revolution.
These stories contrast: freedom as emancipation from bondage vs. freedom as political loyalty; both show the precariousness of liberty for people of African descent during the era.
The influence of identity on policy and postwar settlement
The Revolution reinforced a racialized hierarchy in the future United States and intensified debates over who counted as a citizen and who enjoyed the rights promised by the Revolution.
Loyalist displacement and postwar migrations helped shape Canadian and Caribbean demographics, contributing to long-term regional differences in North America.
Key figures and terms
Loyalists: political allies of Britain; exiled or relocated after the war.
Patriots: colonists who fought for independence.
Joseph Brant (Thayendanegea): Mohawk leader who allied with the British.
Esther DeBerdt Reed; Daughters of Liberty; The Sentiments of an American Woman (1780).
The “civil war” dimension of the Revolution included internal social and political conflicts, including disputes over slavery, land, property, and allegiance.
The big picture
The Revolution was a multi-front conflict involving imperial policy, colonial resistance, race and slavery, gender roles, and international diplomacy.
It redefined political legitimacy in the new United States, even as it left unresolved tensions about who enjoyed the full rights of citizenship.
Connections to earlier and later themes
The early reliance on popular sovereignty and republican ideals in Common Sense and the Declaration laid groundwork for the new constitutional order.
The experience of Loyalists and enslaved people during the Revolution shaped subsequent debates over civil rights and national identity in the United States and in North America more broadly.
Key people, events, and concepts to remember
Key people: Thomas Paine; Thomas Jefferson; George Washington; General Howe; Burgoyne; St. Leger; Clinton; Lafayette; Rochambeau; de Grasse; von Steuben; Nathanael Greene; Daniel Morgan; Horatio Gates; Joseph Brant.
Key events/dates: 1773 Boston Tea Party; 1774 Coercive Acts and First Continental Congress; 1775 Lexington & Concord; 1776 Common Sense; Declaration of Independence; 1777 Saratoga; 1778 French alliance; 1781 Yorktown; 1783 Treaty of Paris.
Key concepts: law-and-order strategy; Continental Association; militia economy and “Not worth a Continental”; republicanism and popular sovereignty; civil religion of the Revolution; Loyalists vs. Patriots; enslaved people and Native American dynamics; women’s wartime roles; international diplomacy shaping victory.
Quick reference: major numeric anchors
Population: roughly 2.5 ext{ million} in the colonies; about one-third Loyalists, one-third Patriots, one-third neutral/apathetic (approximate estimates vary).
Loyalist emigration after the war: up to around 100{,}000 people relocated; about 8{,}000 Whites and 5{,}000 free Blacks to Britain; around 30{,}000 to Canada.
Continental currency inflation: by 1781, 146 Continental dollars ≈ 1 gold dollar.
Military manpower and casualties (selected): Howe’s forces ~32{,}000; Patriot volunteers early on around 16{,}000; Yorktown siege involved about 16{,}000 allied troops in total on the American-French side.
Major obituaries and symbols: The World Turned Upside Down (surrender music); Trumbull’s Surrender of Cornwallis image; Washington’s Delaware crossing and victories at Trenton (Dec 26, 1776) and Princeton (Jan 3, 1777).
The big-picture takeaways
The war was not only a military struggle but a profound social and political upheaval that redefined ideas about liberty, citizenship, and governance.
The Revolution’s legacy includes both ideals of equality and the persistence of slavery and Indigenous dispossession, which would continue to challenge American nation-building for generations.
The outcome hinged on a combination of domestic resilience, strategic military leadership, critical political decisions, and international diplomacy that brought formidable French (and later Spanish and Dutch) support to the American cause.