In-Depth Study Notes for Psychology Exam

Memory Distortions

• Source Amnesia: Forgetting who told you something or where you heard it.
• Misinformation Effect: Memory distortion caused by misleading suggestions (e.g., "lost in the mall" experiment).
• Framing: The way a question is posed influences memory recall (e.g., "how fast were the cars going when they smashed?").
• Imagination Inflation: Increased confidence that an event occurred after imagining it, even if it never happened.

Types of Amnesia

• Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories (e.g., "50 First Dates").
• Retrograde Amnesia: Loss of memories prior to the amnesia event.

Intelligence & Achievement

• Intelligence Theories:
  • Single Intelligence (g Factor): A general intelligence (g) underlies all mental skills (typical of IQ tests).
  • Multiple Intelligences: Suggests intelligence includes various types beyond math/language.
• First IQ Test Formula: IQ = \frac{\text{mental age}}{\text{chronological age}} \times 100
  • Mental Age: Age level at which a person performs (compared to others of the same age).
• Standard IQ Scores: 100 is average, with a standard deviation (SD) of 15.

Psychometrics in Testing

• Standardization: Consistent testing conditions and grading procedures (e.g., SAT, AP exams).
• Reliability: Tests must yield consistent results over time. Methods include:
  • Split-Half Reliability: Comparing scores between two halves of a test.
  • Test-Retest Reliability: Administering the same test at different times.
• Validity: Tests must accurately measure intended concepts.
  • Construct Validity: Test must measure the intended construct (e.g., IQ tests should measure IQ).
  • Predictive Validity: Ability to accurately predict traits (e.g., high math scores predict engineering success).

Types of Tests

• Aptitude Tests: Assess potential to learn new skills (e.g., ASVAB).
• Achievement Tests: Assess knowledge in specific subjects (e.g., AP tests).

Historical Issues with Intelligence Testing

• Nature vs. Nurture: Role of genetics and environment in influencing IQ.
  • MZ twins tend to have similar IQs; adopted children align more with biological parents.
  • Environmental factors, like schooling, significantly influence IQ.
  • Socioeconomic factors, such as poverty, also affect test scores.
• Eugenics: Historical attempts to improve the gene pool through controlling reproduction.
• Culture Fair Tests: Aim to minimize cultural bias by focusing on non-language skills.
• Stereotype Threat & Lift: Anxiety over fulfilling negative stereotypes affects performance, while comparing oneself to negatively stereotyped groups can enhance performance.
• Flynn Effect: Rising IQ scores over the last 80 years attributed to improved education and healthcare.
• Mindsets:
  • Fixed Mindset: Belief that intelligence is static, leading to reduced effort.
  • Growth Mindset: Belief that intelligence can develop over time, encouraging more effort.

Developmental Psychology

Thematic Issues in Development

1. Nature vs. Nurture: Focus on genetic vs. environmental influences.
2. Continuous vs. Discontinuous: Whether development occurs gradually or in stages (e.g., Piaget’s stages).
3. Stability vs. Change: Whether traits persist or change through life.

Research Methods

• Cross-Sectional Studies: Examine different age groups at one time; quick but shows generational gaps.
• Longitudinal Studies: Follow the same individuals over time; rich data but expensive and with high dropout rates.

Physical & Cognitive Development

• Prenatal Development: Influenced by teratogens (e.g., drugs, alcohol).
• Maturation: Natural progression in physical development, with gross motor skills (e.g., walking) developing before fine skills (e.g., writing).
• Object Permanence: Understanding that objects continue to exist even when not visible.
• Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development:
  1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 yrs): Exploration and lacking object permanence.
  2. Pre-operational Stage (2-7 yrs): Use of symbols, egocentrism, and lack of conservation.
  3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 yrs): Logical thinking about concrete events.
  4. Formal Operational Stage (11-15 yrs): Abstract reasoning.

Vygotsky’s Theory

• Emphasizes social interaction in cognitive development and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), where learning lies between what a learner can do alone and with help.
• Crystallized Intelligence: Knowledge from past experiences increases with age.
• Fluid Intelligence: The ability to solve new problems decreases with age.

Language Development

• Phonemes: Smallest sound units (e.g., "ch").
• Morphemes: Smallest units with meaning (e.g., "-ed").
• Stages of language acquisition:
  1. Cooing: vowel sounds.
  2. Babbling: phonemes with consonants.
  3. One-word stage: Basic wants.
  4. Two-word stage (telegraphic speech): More advanced communication.

Socioemotional Development

• Temperament: Patterns of emotional response in infants influence attachment styles (e.g., easy, difficult, slow to warm).
• Attachment Styles:
  • Secure: Upset when parent leaves but calmed upon return.
  • Insecure: Avoidant, anxious, or disorganized behaviors.
• Parenting Styles: Influence child development:
  • Authoritarian: High demands, low responsiveness.
  • Permissive: Low demands, high responsiveness.
  • Authoritative: Balanced approach; promotes social competence.

Erikson’s Stages of Socioemotional Development

1. Trust vs. Mistrust: (0-18 months) Basic trust formed.
2. Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt: (1-3 yrs); promoting independence.
3. Initiative vs. Guilt: (3-6 yrs); learning initiative and creativity.
4. Industry vs. Inferiority: (6-puberty). Accomplishing tasks leads to competence.
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion: (adolescence-20s); developing self-identity.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation: (20s-40s); forming close relationships.
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation: (40s-60s); contributing to society.
8. Integrity vs. Despair: (60s+); reflecting on life achievements.

Identity Development (Marlowe's Theory)

• Identity Diffusion: Lack of commitment and exploration.
• Foreclosure: Commitment without exploration.
• Moratorium: Active exploration without commitment.
• Identity Achievement: Commitment after exploration.

Motivation Theories

• Instinct Theory: Motivation driven by innate patterns and response to stimuli (e.g., mating behaviors).