un 4.6-

4.6.A.1

Drive-Reduction Theory - proposed by Clark Hull, suggests that motivation arises from physiological needs that create an aroused state, or drive, which pushes an organism to reduce that need and achieve homeostasis. According to this theory, behaviors are performed to satisfy these needs and restore balance. When you're hungry, the drive for food motivates you to seek out and consume food, thereby reducing the hunger and restoring balance.

Arousal Theory - posits that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal, which varies from person to person. Too little arousal leads to boredom, while too much arousal leads to stress. Optimal arousal levels differ depending on the individual and the situation. A person might go skydiving to achieve high arousal levels or practice meditation to reduce arousal and stress.

Yerkes-Dodson Law - proposes a relationship between arousal levels and performance, suggesting that moderate levels of arousal lead to optimal performance on tasks. According to this law, both very high and very low levels of arousal can impair performance. In sports, athletes need to achieve an optimal level of arousal to perform well. For example, a tennis player may perform best with moderate arousal during a match, enabling quick reflexes and strategic thinking. Too much arousal (e.g., anxiety) or too little (e.g., lack of focus) can lead to errors and reduced performance.

4.6.A.2

Self-Determination Theory (SDT) - developed by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, focuses on intrinsic motivation and the human need for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. According to SDT, when these needs are met, people are more likely to be intrinsically motivated and experience well-being. In a workplace setting, employees are more motivated and productive when they feel they have control over their work (autonomy), believe they are skilled at their tasks (competence), and feel connected to their colleagues (relatedness).

Incentive Theory - suggests that behavior is motivated by external rewards or incentives. Unlike drive-reduction theory, which focuses on internal states, incentive theory emphasizes the role of external stimuli in motivating behavior.

Intrinsic Motivation - refers to engaging in a behavior because it is inherently rewarding, rather than for some separable consequence. Activities are pursued for their own sake and for the pleasure and satisfaction derived from participation. Studying a subject out of curiosity and a desire to understand, without concern for grades or rewards.

Extrinsic Motivation - involves engaging in an activity to earn external rewards or avoid punishment. These rewards can include praise, money, grades, or social approval. Participating in sports or contests to win medals or gain recognition.

4.6.A.3

Instinct Theory - proposes that behaviors are driven by innate biological instincts that are evolutionarily programmed. These instincts are automatic and unlearned responses to specific stimuli. This theory suggests that certain behaviors, such as mating or parental care, are hardwired and essential for survival and reproduction. It highlights the role of inherited traits in motivating behavior.

Extrinsic motivation involves engaging in an activity to earn external rewards or avoid punishment. These rewards can include praise, money, grades, or social approval.

4.6.A.4

Lewin's Motivational Conflicts - Kurt Lewin identified three types of motivational conflicts that arise when an individual faces competing goals or needs: approach-approach, approach-avoidance, and avoidance-avoidance conflicts.

Approach-Approach Conflict - An approach-approach conflict occurs when an individual must choose between two equally attractive options. Choosing between two exciting job offers can create an approach-approach conflict.

Approach-Avoidance Conflict - An approach-avoidance conflict arises when a single choice has both positive and negative aspects.Deciding whether to take a high-paying job that requires moving to a less desirable location involves approach-avoidance conflict.

Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict - An avoidance-avoidance conflict occurs when an individual must choose between two equally unattractive options. Deciding between doing a disliked chore or facing the consequences of not doing it represents an avoidance-avoidance conflict.

4.6.A.5

Sensation Seeking - refers to the tendency to seek out novel and intense experiences. Individuals with high sensation-seeking traits are motivated by the desire for varied, complex, and stimulating experiences. Thrill-seekers may participate in extreme sports like bungee jumping or skydiving to satisfy their need for high arousal and excitement.

Experience Seeking - is a motivational tendency characterized by a desire for new sensations and experiences, even if they involve risk or uncertainty. Individuals high in experience seeking are often curious, adventurous, and open to exploring novel activities or environments.

Thrill or Adventure Seeking - is a motivational trait characterized by a strong desire for intense and exciting experiences, often involving physical risks or challenges. Individuals with high thrill-seeking tendencies are motivated by the adrenaline rush and excitement associated with activities like skydiving, mountain climbing, or racing.

Disinhibition - refers to a motivational state where individuals seek to escape from social norms, constraints, or inhibitions. It involves a desire for freedom from conventional rules and restraints, often leading to impulsive or unrestrained behavior.

Boredom Susceptibility - refers to the tendency to experience dissatisfaction or restlessness when not engaged in stimulating activities. Individuals high in boredom susceptibility may seek constant stimulation and struggle with maintaining attention during repetitive or monotonous tasks.

4.6.B.1

Eating - is a fundamental biological drive essential for survival and maintaining bodily functions. It involves the consumption of food to acquire nutrients and energy necessary for growth, metabolism, and overall health.

4.6.B.1.i

The motivation to eat is influenced by both biological and psychological factors. Hunger signals from the hypothalamus regulate appetite, triggering the desire to eat when energy levels are low. Hormones such as ghrelin stimulate hunger, signaling the need for food intake, while leptinsuppresses appetite after eating, signaling satiety. These hormonal mechanisms interact with external factors like food availability, social cues, and cultural norms, shaping eating behaviors.

4.6.B.1.ii

External Factors: Social gatherings, advertisements, and food accessibility influence eating behavior. For example, the smell of food at a social event can stimulate appetite, leading people to eat more than they might alone.

4.7.A.1

Emotion, or affect - is a complex psychological process that is distinguished from reasoning or knowledge. Emotions reflect internal and external factors affecting an individual. Early 20th century psychological theories of emotion parsed the distinction between the physiological and cognitive experiences of emotion. Some theories proposed that the physiological and cognitive experiences occurred in succession while others proposed that they occurred simultaneously. Other theories emphasize that the cognitive label is required to experience an emotion. The facial-feedback hypothesis suggests that the experience of emotion is influenced by facial expressions, which supports theories that propose the physiological experience of emotion precedes the cognitive appraisal, andresearch testing this hypothesis has produced mixed results.

Facial-Feedback Hypothesis - suggests that facial expressions not only reflect emotional experiences but also influence them. According to this theory, facial muscles send signals to the brain, which then interprets these signals as emotions. For example, smiling can induce feelings of happiness, while frowning may lead to feelings of sadness or displeasure.During stressful situations, consciously adopting a relaxed facial expression (like smiling softly) can help reduce feelings of anxiety or tension, demonstrating the influence of facial feedback on emotional regulation.

4.7.A.2

Broaden-and-Build Theory - proposes that positive emotions broaden an individual's momentary thought-action repertoire, enhancing their ability to cope with stressful situations and fostering long-term psychological resilience. Unlike negative emotions, which narrow one's focus to specific actions, positive emotions broaden awareness and cognition. Engaging in hobbies or activities that bring joy (e.g., playing music, gardening) not only enhances immediate feelings of happiness but also builds skills and networks that promote long-term mental health and adaptive coping strategies.

4.7.B.1

Expression of Emotions Theory - posits that emotions are expressed through universal facial expressions that are recognizable across cultures. Psychologist Paul Ekman identified six primary emotions (anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, surprise) and argued that these expressions serve evolutionary purposes, aiding in survival and social communication. In professional settings, accurately interpreting colleagues' facial expressions (e.g., detecting frustration during a meeting) enables effective communication and collaboration, fostering positive workplace relationships and productivity.

4.7.B.2

Display Rules - refer to cultural norms and social expectations that govern how emotions are expressed and regulated in different contexts. These rules dictate when, where, and to what extent individuals can display emotions, influencing how emotions are managed and communicated in social interactions. In some cultures, displaying intense emotions like anger or sadness openly in public settings may be discouraged, promoting emotional restraint and composure in social settings. Conversely, in other cultures, expressing emotions openly may be seen as authentic and valued, fostering emotional intimacy and communication