Page 1

Unknown Solution Testing Results

• Test Results: Conducted biochemical tests on an unknown solution which could be a carbohydrate, lipid, or protein.

  • Benedict's Test: Clear blue (indicates it is not a reducing sugar)

  • Iodine Test: Brown (indicates no starch present)

  • Biuret Test: Violet (indicates presence of proteins)

• Conclusion: Based on results, the unknown is likely B. Protein.

Disposal of Reagents

• Question: Which reagent can be poured out down the drain?

  • Answer: D. None of above

Page 2

Histology Basics

Cell Structures

• Most Obvious on H&E Staining: A. Nucleus

• Four Primary Tissues in Histology: A. Epithelial, Connective, Muscular, Nervous

Epithelial Cell Shapes

• Stratified Squamous Epithelia Shapes: A. Flat with a nucleus bump in the center

Page 3

Human Skeleton

• Overview of the human skeleton as a complex structure supporting the body.

Page 4

Introduction to the Skeletal System

• Objective:

  • Understand components of the skeletal system.

• Exercise: Identify compact bone, spongy bone, and cartilage.

  • Understand locations, significant features, and descriptions of each.

  • Identify portions of a long bone and its tissues.

• Investigation: Estimate height based on bone length.

Page 5

Components of the Skeletal System

• Main Components:

  • Bones

  • Cartilage

  • Joints

  • Ligaments

• Bone Mass: Comprises about 14% of total body weight; maximum density reached around age 21.

Page 6

Functions of the Skeletal System

• Support: Hard framework supporting soft organs.

• Protection: Protects vital organs like the brain and spinal cord.

• Movement: Assists muscle attachment, legally acting as levers.

• Storage: Stores minerals, fats.

• Blood Cell Formation: Bone marrow responsible for producing blood cells.

Page 7

Lab Activities

• Observe Anatomy: Long bone model and understand its components.

• Tissue Structures: Observe compact bone, spongy bone, and hyaline cartilage under a microscope; relate structure to function.

• Human Skeleton: Identify major bones and relationships for estimating height.

Page 8

Exercise 1

• Observation: Anatomy of a long bone in detail.

Page 9

Bone Classification by Size and Shape

• Bone Types:

  • Long bone (e.g., humerus)

  • Flat bone (e.g., sternum)

  • Short bone (e.g., trapezoid)

  • Irregular bone (e.g., vertebra)

Page 10

Long Bone Structure

• Classification: Based on shape, not size.

• Characteristics: Long shaft with two distinct ends. Example: Humerus.

Page 11

Long Bone Anatomy and Structure

• Key Features:

  • Articular cartilage: Covers ends for joint movement.

  • Periosteum: Covers bone surfaces except cartilage areas.

  • Medullary cavity: Contains yellow bone marrow, provides strength and protective features.

  • Spongy Bone: Located at ends, contains red bone marrow for blood cell production.

  • Epiphyseal Line: Indicator of growth plate from hyaline cartilage.

Page 12

Bone Marrow Types

• Yellow Bone Marrow: Stores fat (adipose tissue).

• Red Bone Marrow: Responsible for blood cell production.

• Comparative overview of marrow distribution between infants and adults.

Page 13

Exercise 2

• Focus: Observe bone and cartilage tissues.

Page 14

Tissue Structures Overview

• Hyaline Cartilage: Covers joint ends, contains cells (chondrocytes) in lacunae, rich in the extracellular matrix with collagen.

• Osteons and Matrix Structure: Central canal for blood vessels in compact bone; contains osteocytes in lacunae.

Page 15

Compact Bone Characteristics

• Properties: Hard, provides support and structure; osteocytes reside in lacunae, matrix is mineral-rich, organized into osteon units.

Page 16

Spongy Bone Characteristics

• Features: Lighter, less dense than compact bone; trabeculae form structure, cavities hold red bone marrow.

Page 17

Hyaline Cartilage Characteristics

• Properties: Flexible, resilient, with a rich matrix of collagen; lacks blood vessels and nerves.

Page 18

Exercise 3

• Task: Identify major bones in the human skeleton.

Page 19

Overview of the Skeletal System

• Total bones in an adult: 206.

• Comprised of bones, cartilage, joints, and ligaments, making up about 20% of body mass.

Page 20

Main Functions Reiteration

• Functions summarized again for clarity: Support, Movement, Protection, Storage, Blood cell production.

Page 21

Axial vs. Appendicular Skeleton

• Axial Skeleton: Includes skull, vertebral column, thoracic cage.

• Appendicular Skeleton: Consists of arms, legs, pelvis, and shoulders.

Page 22

Skull Structure

• Contains mainly flat bones, joints between bones at sutures, includes mandible.

Page 23

Total Number of Skull Bones

• Total of 22 bones:

  • Facial Bones: 14 (structure to the face)

  • Cranial Bones: 8 (protection for the brain)

Page 24

Breakdown of Cranial Bones

• Cranial bones include:

  • Frontal (1)

  • Sphenoid (1)

  • Ethmoid (1)

  • Parietal (2)

  • Temporal (2)

  • Occipital (1)

Page 25

Cranial Fossa

• Fossae: Anterior, middle, and posterior cranial fossae, forming the cranial cavity that houses the brain.

Page 26

Facial Bones

• Overview of 14 facial bones includes essential bones like frontal, temporal, nasal, zygomatic, maxilla, mandible, and key anatomical structures like the larynx and hyoid bone.

Page 27

Axial Skeleton Details

• Components include skull, vertebral column, thoracic cage with structural importance in the head and torso.

Page 28

Spine Structure

• Detailed view of the spine's 26 irregular bones forming an S-shape.

Page 29

Vertebral Sections

• Breakdown of the spine into five sections:

  • Cervical (C1-C7)

  • Thoracic (T1-T12)

  • Lumbar (L1-L5)

  • Sacrum (fused)

  • Coccyx (tailbone)

Page 30

Spine Anatomical Structures

• Internal structure features such as vertebral canal, intervertebral discs, ligaments.

Page 31

Summary of Axial Skeleton

• Identical overview of components in the head and torso: skull, vertebral column, thoracic cage.

Page 32

Thoracic Cage

• Structural components such as the sternum, costal cartilage, and ribs illustrated.

Page 33

Sternum Structure

• Anatomy: made of manubrium, body, xiphoid process.

Page 34

Ribs Overview

• Total of 12 pairs of ribs:

  • True Ribs (1-7) attach directly to sternum.

  • False Ribs (8-12) attach indirectly.

  • Floating Ribs (11-12) do not attach to sternum.

Page 35

Distinction of Bones

• Reiteration of axial vs. appendicular bones, function and importance highlighted.

Page 36

Pectoral Girdle Details

• Components and purpose: Clavicle and Scapula.

Page 37

Anatomy of Upper Limbs

• Includes humerus, radius, ulna with injury types illustrated.

Page 38

Anatomy of the Hand

• Components of the hand including phalanges, metacarpals, carpals illustrated.

Page 39

Overview of Appendicular Bones

• Summary of appendages: arms, legs, pelvis, and shoulders, connecting lower limbs to the axial skeleton.

Page 40

Pelvic Girdle Structure

• Structure described: ilium, sacrum, ischium, pubis, hip bone.

Page 41

Gender Differences in Pelvic Structure

• Notable anatomical differences between male and female pelvis.

Page 42

Lower Limb Bones

• Key Bones: Femur, tibia, fibula, anatomy of foot (phalanges, metatarsals, tarsus) discussed.

Page 43

Anthropometry Application

• Understanding how body measurements can be applied in practical settings.

Page 44

Height Estimation Exercise

• Measurements of long bones (femur, tibia, ulna) for estimating height are crucial.

Page 45

Lab Safety Caution

• Importance of following safety protocols: wear lab coat, gloves.