Social Change

Class Distinctions and Titles

• Equality of Opportunity: Napoleon promoted a society where careers were “open to talents,” allowing individuals to advance based on merit. However, opportunities were largely limited to educated and wealthy civilians, with lower social mobility outside the military.

• Masses de Granit: Napoleon relied on "notables" for governance and administration, reinforcing hierarchical structures while rewarding loyalty through honors.

• Legion of Honour:

  • Established in 1802, the "Ordre National de la Légion d’Honneur" rewarded loyalty and service.

  • 32,000 awards were distributed, mostly to military personnel, with only 1,500 going to civilians.

  • By 1808, recipients gained the title “Chevalier de l’Empire,” becoming hereditary after three generations.

• Imperial Nobility:

  • Titles for loyalty and service introduced after Napoleon's coronation as Emperor in 1804.

  • Included counts, barons, and knights, primarily awarded to military and state officials.

  • By 1808, the Imperial Nobility comprised 59% military men, with a smaller proportion from Ancien Régime nobility.

  • Titles were often paired with estates, pensions, and provisions for heredity based on income levels.

  • The nobility was much smaller than under the Ancien Régime and was closely tied to Napoleon’s regime.

Education

• State Schools:

  • The May 1802 law established primary schools ("école populaire") in every commune and lycées for boys aged 10–16.

  • Lycees provided a militarized, modern curriculum emphasizing obedience and loyalty to the state.

  • Scholarships favored sons of soldiers and civil servants; of 6,400 places, 2,400 were reserved for them.

• Imperial University:

  • Founded in March 1808 to oversee education, ensuring uniform standards and loyalty to Napoleon.

  • Teachers swore loyalty oaths and were rewarded with fixed salaries and pensions.

  • Clergy played a significant teaching role, constituting about one-third of personnel by 1812.

  • Curriculum and teaching methods aligned with state priorities, fostering patriotism and supporting the Empire’s future needs.

Attitude to Women

• Traditional Views:

  • Women were considered primarily for marriage, property transmission, and child-rearing.

  • Female education was limited to primary schooling.

• Civil Code of 1804:

  • Granted married women some control over movable property but limited their rights over land and inheritance.

  • Divorce laws were biased, favoring husbands. Mutual consent divorces were introduced, but a wife’s adultery carried harsher consequences than a husband’s.

• Marriage Practices:

  • Napoleon’s personal life reflected his public stance—he divorced Josephine in 1810 to marry Marie-Louise of Austria for political purposes.

Censorship and Propaganda

• Press Control:

  • Napoleon reduced the number of newspapers from 73 to 4 by 1801, all under strict police supervision.

  • Provincial papers were limited to one per département by 1810.

  • Content was restricted to official news and military bulletins, crafted by Napoleon and his ministers.

• Publications:

  • An 1808 decree reduced publishing houses from ~200 to 60, requiring police licenses.

  • A January 1810 decree created a censorship board under the Ministry of Interior, regulating books, plays, lectures, and posters.

• Propaganda:

  • Napoleon used art, architecture, and public works to project his image as a savior of France. Iconic commissions included the Arc de Triomphe, Vendôme Column, and the Temple of Glory.

  • Artists like Jacques-Louis David and Antoine-Jean Gros were employed to glorify Napoleon’s achievements.

The Church and Concordat

• Reconciliation with the Church:

  • Napoleon recognized Catholicism as the majority religion in the Concordat of July 1801, published in 1802 alongside "Organic Articles."

  • The Concordat secured the Pope’s recognition of the regime while keeping bishops and clergy under state control.

  • Catholic worship was freely allowed, Sunday was reinstated as a rest day in 1800, and the revolutionary calendar was abandoned in 1806.

• State Influence:

  • Clergy swore loyalty to the state, acted as civil servants, and were monitored by prefects and police.

  • Religious toleration was extended to Protestants and Jews under the Organic Articles.

• Deterioration of Relations:

  • Napoleon’s ambitions in Italy strained his relationship with Pope Pius VII.

  • By 1808, French troops occupied Rome, and in 1809, the Pope was imprisoned.

  • A forced Concordat of Fontainebleau in 1813 highlighted the collapse of their reconciliation.